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Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

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Research design is the framework or blueprint that guides the collection, measurement, and analysis of data in a study. It provides a structured approach to answering research questions, ensuring that the study’s goals are met in an organized, reliable, and valid manner. Research design is crucial as it directly impacts the study’s quality, credibility, and findings.

Research Design

Research design is a systematic plan outlining how a study is conducted, including methods of data collection, procedures, and tools for analysis. It aligns the research question with the appropriate methods, ensuring that the study remains focused, feasible, and ethically sound.

Purpose of Research Design :

Provides a structured approach for data collection and analysis.
Ensures consistency in the research process.
Enhances the reliability and validity of findings.
Minimizes bias by defining clear procedures and controls.

Types of Research Design

Research designs are typically classified into three main types: qualitative , quantitative , and mixed methods . Each type serves different purposes and is selected based on the nature of the research question, objectives, and resources.

1. Qualitative Research Design

Definition : Qualitative research focuses on exploring complex phenomena, understanding individual experiences, and generating insights into social or human behavior. It often involves non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis.
Case Study : In-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or event.
Ethnography : Study of cultural groups and practices within their natural setting.
Grounded Theory : Development of a theory based on observed data.
Phenomenology : Exploration of lived experiences and perceptions.
Example : A case study on how remote work impacts employee well-being by conducting interviews with employees from various industries to gather personal insights and themes.

2. Quantitative Research Design

Definition : Quantitative research is focused on quantifying variables and using statistical analysis to test hypotheses. It often involves large samples, standardized data collection tools, and numerical data.
Descriptive : Provides a summary of characteristics or behaviors within a population (e.g., surveys, cross-sectional studies).
Correlational : Examines relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them.
Experimental : Involves manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Quasi-Experimental : Similar to experimental design but lacks random assignment.
Example : An experimental study investigating the effect of a new teaching method on student test scores, with one group using the new method and a control group using traditional methods.

3. Mixed-Methods Research Design

Definition : Mixed-methods design combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study, providing a more comprehensive analysis of the research question.
Explanatory Sequential Design : Quantitative data is collected and analyzed first, followed by qualitative data to explain or expand on the quantitative findings.
Exploratory Sequential Design : Qualitative data is collected first to explore a phenomenon, followed by quantitative data to confirm or generalize findings.
Convergent Design : Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected simultaneously and compared to produce integrated insights.
Example : A study on customer satisfaction, first surveying customers to get quantitative data and then conducting follow-up interviews to explore specific customer feedback in detail.

Methods in Research Design

Various methods are used within research designs to collect and analyze data. Each method is selected based on the research question, data type, and study objectives.

1. Survey and Questionnaire

Definition : Surveys and questionnaires are tools for collecting standardized data from large samples. They are often used in descriptive and correlational studies.
Develop questions related to the research objectives.
Distribute to participants via online platforms, paper forms, or face-to-face interviews.
Analyze results using statistical software for quantitative insights.
Example : A survey assessing consumer satisfaction with a new product by collecting data on factors such as ease of use, design, and performance.

2. Interview

Definition : Interviews are qualitative methods that gather in-depth information through direct questioning. They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
Design interview questions that align with the research goals.
Conduct interviews in person, via phone, or virtually, recording responses for analysis.
Use thematic or content analysis to interpret findings.
Example : Conducting semi-structured interviews with educators to explore their experiences with online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic.

3. Observation

Definition : Observation involves recording behaviors, actions, or events as they occur naturally. It is often used in ethnographic and case study designs.
Choose between participant (researcher actively engages) or non-participant observation.
Develop an observation checklist or guide for consistency.
Record findings, often through field notes or video, and analyze for patterns.
Example : Observing interactions in a classroom setting to study student engagement with different teaching methods.

4. Experiment

Definition : Experiments involve manipulating variables to examine cause-and-effect relationships. They are commonly used in scientific and clinical research.
Randomly assign participants to control and experimental groups.
Manipulate the independent variable and measure changes in the dependent variable.
Use statistical analysis to interpret results.
Example : A laboratory experiment testing the effectiveness of a new drug on blood pressure by comparing outcomes in treated and untreated groups.

5. Case Study

Definition : A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, organization, or event to explore underlying principles and patterns.
Select a case that represents the phenomenon of interest.
Use various data sources, including interviews, documents, and observations.
Analyze for unique insights and apply findings to broader contexts.
Example : A case study on the strategies a small business used to survive during an economic recession.

Examples of Research Design Applications

Design : Quantitative, using a survey.
Goal : To understand consumer preferences for eco-friendly packaging.
Method : Survey distributed to a random sample of consumers asking about purchasing behaviors and attitudes toward sustainability.
Design : Experimental, quantitative.
Goal : To study the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.
Method : Participants are randomly assigned to sleep-deprived and control groups, with cognitive performance measured using standardized tests.
Design : Convergent mixed-methods.
Goal : To evaluate the effectiveness of a new curriculum on student learning.
Method : Collect quantitative data from student test scores and qualitative data from teacher interviews to provide a comprehensive evaluation.
Design : Qualitative, ethnography.
Goal : To study cultural practices in rural communities.
Method : The researcher spends an extended period within the community, observing daily activities and conducting informal interviews.

Tips for Choosing the Right Research Design

Align with Research Question : Choose a design that directly addresses the research question and allows for valid answers.
Consider Data Type : Decide whether the research requires quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (textual or observational) data.
Assess Feasibility : Take into account time, resources, and access to participants when selecting a design.
Ensure Ethical Compliance : Make sure the design is ethically sound, with informed consent and confidentiality for participants.
Anticipate Limitations : Be aware of potential limitations in each design type and how they might affect your findings.

Challenges in Research Design

Sample Selection Bias : Choosing a non-representative sample can lead to biased results and impact the study’s validity.
Data Collection Constraints : Limitations in resources or participant access may affect data quality.
Ethical Concerns : Research involving vulnerable populations or sensitive topics requires careful ethical consideration.
External Validity : Some designs, like case studies, may have limited generalizability beyond the studied context.

Research design is a critical component of the research process, as it determines how a study is structured, conducted, and analyzed. By choosing the appropriate design—whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods—researchers ensure that they answer their questions effectively, producing credible, reliable, and valid results. A solid research design aligns with the study’s objectives, considers resources and ethical issues, and anticipates limitations to provide meaningful contributions to knowledge.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . SAGE Publications.
Trochim, W. M., & Donnelly, J. P. (2008). The Research Methods Knowledge Base . Cengage Learning.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research Methods for Business Students . Pearson Education.
Yin, R. K. (2017). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . SAGE Publications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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7 Evidence-Based Study Strategies (And How to Use Each)

By Kevin Jubbal, M.D.
October 6, 2022
Accompanying Video , Study Strategies
Active Learning , Efficiency , Study Strategies , Studying

As doctors, we treat patients with evidence-based medicine, meaning treatment modalities that are backed by sound scientific research. We can do the same when it comes to studying strategies.

In this article, I’ll break down 7 evidence-based study techniques with supporting scientific evidence, as well as how to implement them.

1 | Spaced Repetition

We can thank the psychologist Herman Ebbinghaus for studying his own memory and generating what is known as the Forgetting Curve. In its simplest terms, the Forgetting Curve demonstrates that after forming a memory, we gradually forget more and more of it as time elapses. With attempts to retain the information at increasing intervals, just before we forget it, the memory becomes more durable.

We know from neuroscience fundamentals that repetition potentiates neural connections and allows us to remember information more effectively. The problem is that we have far too much information to learn—we can’t repeat every fact we need to know on a daily basis. Enter the Spacing Effect. By repeated exposures to a piece of information at increasing intervals between each repetition, we can optimize memorization and retain the most information in the least amount of time.

Spaced repetition is most powerful when the timing is just right. If too little time elapses between repetitions, the information is not reinforced as strongly. If too much time passes, you forget and are unable to recall the desired information.

How to Implement Spaced Repetition

If we see the same information multiple times over increasing intervals, we’ll be far more effective at encoding those facts into long-term memory. This is why cramming is so ineffective. Studying for 8 hours over 2 weeks will generally result in superior performance compared to studying for 8 hours in one sitting.

I’m a big proponent of using tools and systems to streamline and automate processes. I recommend you take this same approach with spaced repetition. You could create a study schedule for yourself where you plan out when to review older lectures in addition to recent lectures.

Alternatively, you can offload the process to other apps, like Anki , which will test you on bite-sized pieces of information through flashcards and automatically schedule the cards based on the difficulty of recall for each.

Common Mistakes with Spaced Repetition

The most common mistake is procrastination and cramming just days before the exam. This undermines any of the potential advantages of spaced repetition.

When practicing spaced repetition, make sure you’re using effective study strategies and not simply rereading your notes. Rereading your notes is a form of recognition, whereby you look at some facts and tell yourself, “oh yeah, I know that.” This is unreliable.

Instead, spaced repetition is most effective when combined with active recall , whereby you test yourself for the answer. This brings us to the second evidence-based study strategy.

2 | Active Recall

Active recall is the practice of using the Testing Effect to your advantage. If you’re already using active recall, chances are you love it because of the resulting drastic improvement in performance. If you aren’t using it yet, there’s a bit of a learning curve that may be discouraging.

You should expect active recall to be a difficult process, as active learning methods are, by definition, far more challenging than passive forms.

How to Implement Active Recall

When it comes to active recall, I normally advise students to create flashcards through Anki or to use practice problems, which has the added benefit of practicing higher order thinking.

There are other ways to incorporate active recall, though. For example, you could write or sketch out everything you know about a certain topic without looking at your notes. Be as thorough as you can be. Afterward, check what you’ve written compared to your class notes for accuracy and to fill in points you may have missed.

Common Mistakes with Active Recall

Many students try active recall for a short period of time, only to give up soon after because they find it difficult. The key is to understand that if it feels difficult, that means it’s working. And with anything in life, with practice, you’ll get better at it. It becomes easier with time!

Another common mistake is studying facts in isolation. Particularly with flashcards, students may focus too much on individual facts without adequate comprehension. Do not neglect comprehension, which means truly understanding the relation between ideas and how certain concepts are similar or different.

Lastly, remember to not only practice the recall part but to also check your answers. If you are practicing recall without verifying the accuracy, you may be reinforcing incorrect information.

3 | Desirable Difficulties

Closely intertwined with active recall is the concept of desirable difficulties. This states that a learning task that requires a considerable amount of effort will improve long-term performance, even though it may initially slow down learning.

Research demonstrates that the traditional easy forms of passive learning show better temporary performance effects, but more difficult tasks, such as learning with active recall, result in improved performance in the long-term.

Think of it like going to the gym. If you bench press 10-pound dumbbells, you’re technically doing chest exercises, but you’re not challenging yourself enough to improve. This is like passive learning. On the other hand, if you bench press 100-pound dumbbells in each hand, you’d be exerting yourself to a far greater capacity, resulting in muscle breakdown and, ultimately, hypertrophy. This is a desirable difficulty, which you are more readily able to achieve with tools such as active recall.

Desirable difficulties is an overarching principle that serves as a common thread throughout the 6 other evidence-based learning techniques.

4 | Elaboration

Elaboration refers to further describing and explaining various ideas or concepts that you’re studying to solidify your understanding of the material.

How to Implement Elaboration

The concept of elaboration sounds great, but the tricky part is how to effectively implement the technique. Here are a few suggestions to help:

Generate questions for yourself about how various concepts or principles work and the underlying reasons why. Try answering on your own first, and then turn to your class materials or study buddies for verification and further explanation.
Cross-reference different ideas, even if your professor or class materials didn’t explicitly do so. By comparing and contrasting relatable components, you’ll better understand the nuances of each and how they interplay, and you’ll be less likely to confuse the two.
Make the content relatable. While elaborating on a concept, relate it to your own life experiences or memories for a stronger memory anchor. Integrating new material with concepts you already know helps you organize the new ideas, facilitating recall in the future, such as on test day .

Common Mistakes with Elaboration

Don’t be overzealous with your elaboration, meaning keep it within the scope of what is accurate and reasonable. Overextension of elaboration can actually cause further confusion in the long run.

Practicing elaboration with small groups, such as with the Feynman technique , can be helpful, but beyond three people, the drawbacks begin to outweigh the benefits.

5 | Interleaving

Interleaving is the practice of alternating your studying from one topic to another rather than blocking time for only one subject for an extended period of time.

The literature suggests that this strategy is particularly helpful with subjects requiring problem-solving, such as physics, chemistry, or math. Why is this counterintuitively beneficial? Interleaving facilitates finding the links, similarities, and differences between ideas.

How to Implement Interleaving

Interleaving simply means you need to switch between topics, ideas, or subjects during a study session. Avoid studying one focused area for too long.

As you interleave, it’s recommended you approach the topics and subjects in different orders to facilitate improved understanding. While doing so, make it a conscious practice to think about how you can link principles between the different concepts.

The added benefit that goes overlooked is one of sustained endurance. When you’re strategically shifting between topics, you can ward off burnout and boredom through novel stimuli. I used this practice almost religiously as a medical student to get through study marathons on an almost daily basis.

Common Mistakes with Interleaving

Interleaving requires a bit of calibration—if you spend too little or too much time on a single topic, it can prove detrimental. Switch too often, and you begin to face the issues of multitasking, whereby you fail to achieve meaningful deep understanding, and effectiveness drops. If you spend too much time on one area, you’re not interleaving but rather just performing traditional blocked studying.

My recommendation is to perform at least 1-2 Pomodoro blocks before switching to a new topic. At the end of the study session, summarize the relevant key points, but do so in a different order than when you first reviewed the information.

6 | Concrete Examples

Concrete examples are a useful tool in facilitating the understanding of complex or difficult concepts. It’s quite simple—find relevant examples that illustrate the principles from a lesson you’re trying to learn, and ensure you deeply understand how the concrete example is a reflection of this principle in practice.

How to Implement Concrete Examples

To implement this practice, collect examples and then explain how the example illustrates the principle you’re attempting to learn and repeat. You can also create your own examples or exchange examples with your study group for added benefit.

Common Mistakes With Concrete Examples

When practicing this technique, ensure that the examples are actually relevant and accurate to the concept or principle you’re studying. Too often, students will find poor examples online, through friends, or from other resources that reinforce an improper understanding.

7 | Dual Coding

Dual coding is the practice of inputting information related to the same concept through multiple forms of media. For example, you may read about a concept in a textbook and additionally use visuals and diagrams to drive the point home.

How to Implement Dual Coding

To most effectively implement dual coding, don’t simply look at a visual and think, “ah yes, I know this,” but rather actively explain the concept in your own words. Even better, take the information you’ve read about in a textbook or heard about in lecture and create your own visuals.

This goes back to the summary sheets and synthesis questions I spoke about in my how to take notes guide . This will not only prove helpful in the active process of creating the diagram, but now you also have a condensed, high-yield visual for future reference.

Common Mistakes with Dual Coding

The most common mistake to avoid with dual coding is passively reviewing the various forms of media rather than approaching the practice through active methods. To demonstrate mastery, you should be able to draw necessary figures from memory without cheating and looking at your notes.

Final Thoughts

Understand that these seven principles are not to be practiced in isolation but rather are interrelated and should be used in conjunction.

Out of these 7 evidence-based study techniques, which ones are you going to practice moving forward? Let me know with a comment down below.

For more study strategies, premed guides, and the latest advice on getting into and succeeding at medical school, follow the Med School Insiders blog and sign up for our weekly newsletter .

Kevin Jubbal, M.D.

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This Post Has 5 Comments

Hi! I’m gonna start using these techniques to my daily study.. I’ve been using mind maps to synthesize a lot of long med topics.. but what do you think about mind maps? Have you used them during your carreer? Thanks a lot for your time and dedication to help us studying more efficiently.

I haven’t heard of most of these techniques and I’m stunned as to why teachers never mentioned this to us, students! Thank you so much for sharing these techniques!

Thank you for this wonderful article! I am a chemistry teacher and science department lead at a medical-studies themed high school in Colorado. I will be teaching some of these strategies to my high school science department teachers to support student success in preparing for our final exams. Do you have any other examples (like the Feynman Technique) that you could share?

With gratitude,

This blog does a fantastic job breaking down evidence-based learning strategies like spaced repetition and active recall. The practical tips and common mistakes sections are especially helpful, making complex concepts easy to understand and implement. Great read!

Thank you for sharing these evidence-based study strategies! I especially found the Pomodoro Technique useful for maintaining focus during long study sessions. I’m excited to try out the spaced repetition method for my upcoming exams. Definitely bookmarking this post for future reference!