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Convection Science Experiment – How Heat Moves through Liquid

Can heat cause movement? With a few drops of food coloring, cooking oil, and a candle you can find out! In this simple yet exciting science experiment, kids can explore the concepts of density and convection as they watch convection currents in motion!

A demonstration video, printable instructions, and a supplies list are included as well as an easy to understand scientific explanation of how this experiment works.

Note: Because this experiment uses a fire component, adult supervision is required.

JUMP TO SECTION:   Instructions  |  Video Tutorial  |  How it Works | Purchase Lab Kit

Supplies Needed

• Large heat safe glass bowl
• Cooking Oil
• Food Coloring
• Two 2×4 blocks
• Match or Lighter

Convection Science Lab Kit – Only $5

Use our easy Convection Science Lab Kit to grab your students’ attention without the stress of planning!

It’s everything you need to  make science easy for teachers and fun for students  — using inexpensive materials you probably already have in your storage closet!

Convection Science Experiment Instructions

Step 1 – Begin by filling a large glass bowl with cooking oil.

Step 2 – Next, add between 5-10 drops of food coloring into the oil. Take a moment to make some observations. What happens to the food coloring? Does it mix with the oil?

Helpful Tip: Place the drops near the center of the bowl.

Step 3 – Prop the bowl up off the table using two 2×4 blocks. Position the blocks so there is a space between them to put a candle.

Step 4 – Light a candle and carefully place it under the bowl. The flame of the candle should touch the bottom of the glass bowl. 

Step 5 – Look through the side of the glass bowl and watch carefully to observe what happens. Write down what happens. Helpful Tip: It will likely take 5 minutes before you see anything happen to the liquid/food coloring.

Do you know why the food coloring moves around in the oil? Find out the answer in the how does this experiment work section below.

Video Tutorial

How Does the Science Experiment Work

Heat can move in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. In this experiment, heat is transferred by means of convection. Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of currents within a fluid.

In our experiment, the oil at the bottom of the bowl was heated by the candle. The particles of oil at the bottom of the pot began to move faster and further apart. As a result, these oil particles became less dense than the rest of the oil particles in the bowl, so these heated, less dense oil particles began to rise. (Less dense fluids rise and more dense fluids sink). The surrounding, cooler oil particles flow in to take its place. This flow creates a circular motion known as a convection current . A convection current is caused by the rising and sinking of heated and cooled fluids.

You can see evidence of the convection current if you look at the food coloring in the bowl. Notice bubbles of food coloring rise from the center of the bowl, drift to edges of the bowl, and sink back to the bottom.

Convection currents are all around us and responsible for heating many things! Our homes are heated in the winter through convection currents. The troposphere of the atmosphere (the layer closest to Earth) is heated through convection currents. The mantle inside of Earth is heated through convection currents, which causes Earth’s crust to drift in a process called continental drift.

I hope you enjoyed the experiment. Here are some printable instructions:

Convection Science Experiment

• Two 2×4 blocks

Instructions

• Begin by filling a large glass bowl with cooking oil.
• Next, add between 5-10 drops of food coloring into the oil. Helpful Tip: Place the drops near the center of the bowl.
• Prop the bowl up off the table using two 2×4 blocks.
• Light a candle and carefully place it under the bowl. The flame of the candle should touch the bottom of the glass bowl.
• Look through the side of the glass bowl and watch carefully to observe what happens. Helpful Tip: It will likely take 5 minutes before you see anything happen to the liquid/food coloring.

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Convection Currents Made Easy

June 13, 2022 By Emma Vanstone Leave a Comment

When part of a liquid or gas is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. The warmer, less dense liquid rises upwards, and the cooler liquid falls to take its place. This cycle of a liquid or gas rising and falling is called a convection current .

We set up a very simple convection current demonstration using hot and cold water with food colouring to show the movement of warm water through cold water.

Convection Current Demonstration

You’ll need.

Tall glass or vase

A smaller glass or cup

Food colouring

Instructions

Fill the tall glass or jar with cold water.

Fill the smaller container with hot ( but not boiling water ) and add a few drops of food colouring.

Carefully place the small container into the container with the cold water.

Watch what happens to the warmer, coloured water.

The hot, coloured water rises upwards and collects at the top of the cold water. It then cools and sinks downwards. Eventually, all the water will be at the same temperature.

How does convection work?

Particles of warm water move more quickly and spread out. They rise upwards through denser, cooler water, which sinks to the bottom, where it warms up. Eventually, all the liquid is at the same temperature.

Warm water rises because when liquids and gases are heated, they expand. This means they take up more room but have the same mass, so their density is less than when they are cool. Substances with lower densities float on substances with higher densities.

A hot air balloon is another example of convection currents in action.

Ask an adult to help with this activity

Extra Challenge

Repeat the activity with cold water instead of hot and watch what happens to the coloured water.

You can see that the cold water isn’t moving upwards like the warm water.

How is heat transferred?

Heat can be transferred in three different ways.

• Conduction.
• Radiation .

Heat convection occurs when warmer molecules of a liquid or gas move from a warmer to a cooler area, taking the heat with them.

Water being heated in a pan is an example of convection. This is the type of heat transfer we demonstrated above.

Another way to demonstrate convection is with a spinning convection snake .

Conduction of heat occurs when vibrating particles pass any extra vibrational energy to nearby particles. The more energy the particles have, the hotter the object gets. An example of this type of heat transfer is when metal pans are heated on a hob. Heat travels through the pan. If the pan handle is also metal, it will get hot, too. This is why metal pans often have plastic or wooden coverings on their handles. Plastic and wood are not good conductors of heat.

Radiation of heat is when heat is radiated to the surrounding area by heat waves. Particles are not involved in this kind of heat transfer.

The heat from the sun travelling through space is an example of heat transfer by radiation. Waves transfer this type of heat.

The campfire and pan example above shows all three kinds of heat transfer.

Heat travels by radiation from the campfire to the metal pan. Heat travels through the pan’s metal by conduction to warm the lower layers of water. The water is then heated by convection as the less dense warmer water rises through the cooler water, creating a convection current !

Remember – heat is only transferred if there is a temperature difference.

Science concepts

• Heat transfer

Last Updated on August 25, 2024 by Emma Vanstone

Safety Notice

Science Sparks ( Wild Sparks Enterprises Ltd ) are not liable for the actions of activity of any person who uses the information in this resource or in any of the suggested further resources. Science Sparks assume no liability with regard to injuries or damage to property that may occur as a result of using the information and carrying out the practical activities contained in this resource or in any of the suggested further resources.

These activities are designed to be carried out by children working with a parent, guardian or other appropriate adult. The adult involved is fully responsible for ensuring that the activities are carried out safely.

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Modeling How Air Moves

In this activity, students use models to observe that air is a fluid that flows due to temperature-driven density differences.

Learning Objectives

• Students will understand that air is a fluid and behaves in ways we expect of other fluids.
• Students will understand that temperature-driven density changes will produce movement in fluids.
• Students will understand that temperature differences cause convection.

Part 1. Air is a fluid

For a class demonstration:

• Baking soda
• 1/4 c. measuring cup
• 500 ml beaker or a glass jar of similar size
• Candle (a small votive candle is ideal)
• Strip of poster board or cardboard that is about 12" by 3" (old file folders work well)

Part 2. Heat causes fluids to move

For the class:

• Pitchers or jugs of room-temperature water
• An electric teakettle, hot plate and pot, or coffee maker to heat water(Hot tap water is usually not hot enough.)

For each team of students:

• Clear plastic plant saucer or platter that is8 to 10 inches wide and at least an inch deep (Note: Do not use saucers with concentric raised rings on the inside bottom; radial ridges are okay.)
• Blue and red food coloring
• Small containers for food coloring such as small cups
• Eye dropper or pipette
• Three disposable cups used for hot beverages
• Bucket to collect used water if a sink is not available

Part 3. Temperature-driven density differences

For each team of students or for a class demonstration:

• A clear plastic shoebox-sized container
• Red food coloring
• Ice cubes made with blue food coloring and water
• Colored pencils (red and blue)
• Index cards or paper

Preparation

• Gather supplies. Note that Part 1works best as a class demonstration for safety reasons; however, Part 2 and Part 3 can be done as a class demonstration by students working in groups of 3 to 4. Only one set of materials is needed for a class demonstration.If performed in small groups, each group will need the materials listed.
• Parts 2and 3 require room temperature water. Leave water overnight or use a thermometer to ensure that the water is around68 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Prepare ice cubes made with blue food coloring and water at least a day before Part 3.

Part 1: Air is a fluid

Introduce fluids.

Make a ramp for the carbon dioxide by folding a piece of cardboard.

• Discuss the physical properties of fluids with students. Be sure to include the idea that fluids can be poured.
• Ask students "Can you name a fluid?" (Students will likely name liquids like water, milk, and soda.)
• Provide more detail about fluids. Tell students that a fluid is anything that would spill or float away if it weren't in a container. If you can stir it up with a spoon or blow it through a straw, it's a fluid.
• Relying on students' prior understanding of solids, liquids, and gases, ask students whether solids are fluids (generally, they are not). Ask students whether gases are fluids (which is the focus of this activity).
• Explain that, in this demonstration, students will observe whether it's possible to ‘pour’ a gas like a fluid.
• Tells students that this demonstration uses carbon dioxide gas. Because it is denser than air, carbon dioxide should flow down a ramp if it is a fluid. Show students the poster board or cardboard folded lengthwise, which is the ramp (see illustration at right).
• Put about a tablespoon of baking soda in the glass jar or beaker and add approximately 1/4 cup of vinegar. Instruct students to observe the bubbles in the jar. Explain that the vinegar and baking soda are reacting, which is filling the jar with carbon dioxide gas. Note that the carbon dioxide gas is invisible.
• Tell students that carbon dioxide gas, without any oxygen present, will extinguish a fire.(That's why carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers.)
• Light a match and hold it in the jar. The flame should go out. (You may need to tip the jar a bit to get the match into the carbon dioxide without burning your finger.)

Do the experiment and observe the results.  

When the fizzing subsides, hold the ramp at an angle so that one end is near the candle flame and the other end is slightly higher. Take care to keep the cardboard ramp out of the flame.

• Empty the jar and set up the experiment (as shown in the illustration at the right) with a lit candle below the ramp and the jar at the upper end of the ramp.
• Explain to students that you will again make carbon dioxide in the jar, but this time you will "pour" it down the ramp and see if it will extinguish the candle.
• Add a tablespoon of baking soda and a 1/4 cup of vinegar to the jar. When the fizzing subsides, hold the ramp at an angle so that one end is near the candle flame and the other end is slightly higher.
• "Pour" the gas from the beaker or jar down the funnel. The flame will go out in a second or two.
• Have students explain how the flame was extinguished. (Answer:There was no more oxygen available for the flame, so the flame went out. Pure carbon dioxide, which is a gas, is denser than air, so it flows like a liquid from the jar or beaker along the ramp. Since the carbon dioxide molecules are heavier, these molecules force out the oxygen molecules. The fire cannot continue without oxygen.

Part 2: Heat causes fluids to move

• Tell the class that they will conduct an experiment to observe how air moves when it's heated.
• Tell students that in this experiment water is used to simulate air in the atmosphere. Water and air move similarly because they are both fluids.
• Show students what their experiment set-up should look like (see image at right). Ask students "What do you think will happen to the food coloring when it's dropped near the heat source (cup of hot water) or when it's dropped further from the heat source?"

Place three disposable cups upside down on a piece of paper.  

Experiment set-up for Part 2

• Place the plastic plant saucer or plastic platter (here after referred to as a plate) on top of the cups. The cups should be near the outer edges of the plate and evenly spaced.
• Fill the plate three-quarters full with cool water. To make certain the water is still, let it sit before the experiment. Be careful not to bump the desk or table during the experiment.
• Using a dropper, slowly release a small amount of food coloring at the bottom of the plate of water.
• Slowly remove the dropper, taking care not to stir the water.
• Observe and draw what happens as the drop sits on the plate.
• Students should start each trial with a clean plate of water. (If your classroom doesn't have a sink, you may wish to place dump buckets around the classroom.)
• Each group will need one cup of hot water, filled almost to the top. The cup of hot water should be placed under the center of the plate.
• Ask students to draw what happens during each trial from the top view.The drawings should show the movement of the colored water and its relationship to the hot water (heat source).

Observations and Questions

• Have students write explanatory captions for the drawings they made of each trial.
• Have students repeat the exercise making drawings from the side of the plate.
• Ask students: How does heat affect the food coloring? (Answer: The dye moved more when placed near the heat source.)
• (Advanced Question) If students have learned about heat transfer, ask them to explain what type of heat transfer is taking place.( Answer:Convection is occurring because we can observe the movement of the colored water within the liquid. Convection transmits heat through the movement of molecules.)

Part 3: Temperature-driven density differences

• Introduction:
• To connect Part 2 and Part 3, discuss radiation and convection. The transfer of heat from the water in the cup to the plate in Part 2 is radiation. Convection , another method of heat transfer, is the movement of water in the plate during Part 2. (For additional information on radiation and convection, refer to the background section of this activity.)
• Show students what their experiment set up will look like for Part 3(a shoebox of water, blue ice cubes, and red food coloring). Tell students that this experiment is more like the atmosphere compared to Part 2 because there is a larger thickness/volume of fluid. Remind students that water is representing the same movement found in the air.
• Ask students "From what you have learned in Part 2, will the cold (blue) water rise or sink in comparison to the warm (red) water? Why?
• Provide each group with a plastic container 2/3 full of room temperature water.Instruct students not to move the container or table so that the water becomes completely still.
• Provide each group with a blue ice cube to put at one end of their container (alternatively, use a drop of blue coloring on ice).For best results, add the ice cube with as little disturbance to the water as possible.
• Put two drops of red food coloring at the other end of each container. (For dramatic effect, heat the red food coloring in warm water.).Take care not to stir the water as you add the food coloring.

Have students observe the long sides of the container to see where the blue and red food coloring travel. Example:  

• Ask students to draw a picture that describes their observations and then compare their pictures with pictures made by other groups.
• Did similar things happen to the food coloring in different groups? ( Answer: Results should be similar.)
• What happened to the blue, cold food coloring? ( Answer: It sunk. )
• What happened to the red, warm food coloring? ( Answer: The red, warm water rose towards the surface of the water and spread out above the blue, cold water.)
• What was the difference between the blue and red water? ( Answer: Temperature difference. If you have discussed density, students should know that there is also a density difference.)
• Do warm fluids (e.g. water or air) rise or sink compared to cold fluids? Explain why. (Answer: The temperature difference causes movement of water at different levels because less dense, warm water rises while the more dense cold water sinks.)
• (Advanced Question)  Using knowledge from Parts 1 and 2, how could you apply this idea of warm, water rising and cold, water sinking to the air in the atmosphere since both are fluids?
• Ask students to imagine a situation similar to Part 2, except this time, a cup of ice water is substituted for the cup of hot water.How would the circulation look? (Cold water should flow along the bottom of the saucer until it nears the warmer sides. Then it will rise up. As it reaches the top, the water will cool and sink, drawing water from the sides in toward the center.)

A fluid is any substance that flows. Fluids include liquids, gases, and some solids like glacial ice. Fluids take the shape of a container because they do not have a specific shape and include common substances like water, shampoo, sunscreen, honey, and air. Air is a mixture of gases that flows and takes the form of its container, so it is a fluid.

Fluids flow due to different densities. The chemical composition of fluids influences density. For example, fresh water is less dense than salt water; therefore, salt water is heavier and sinks below the freshwater. Another example (as seen in Part 1) is that carbon dioxide is heavier (denser) than air, allowing carbon dioxide to force air out of the way and extinguish the fire. The fire cannot continue without a supply of oxygen, such as the oxygen found in air.

Temperature changes can also affect the density of a fluid. Adding heat to a fluid increases the motion of the molecules, which then spread further apart. Warm fluids are less dense and rise while cold fluids are denser and sink. The circulation of rising and sinking air is called convection.

Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a heated material. In the atmosphere, on a hot summer day, the surface of the Earth is heated by energy from the Sun. Then, the warmed Earth surface warms air near the ground. The warm air rises, while cooler air sinks towards the ground. That cooler air is then warmed by the Earth's surface and rises, continuing the convection pattern. Convection plays a key role in the formation of clouds and even thunderstorms. There is a limit of how far the warm air can rise in the atmosphere because air temperatures decrease with increasing altitude .

The continual cycling due to temperature-driven density, convection currents, are found in many places and on many scales in the atmosphere, ocean, and even in the Earth's interior. Smaller convection currents can be found in a cup of hot cocoa or a fish tank. Convective motions in the atmosphere are responsible for the redistribution of heat from the warm equatorial regions to higher latitudes and from the surface upward.

The main three processes of heat transfer include radiation, conduction, and convection.

Consider what happens to the water in a pot as it is heated over an open camp stove.In this example, radiation transfers heat from the burner to the pot. ( Additional background information on radiation can be found here .) Convection moves heat and water in the pot. The water at the bottom of the pot heats up first and expands. Since the warmed water has a lower density than the water around it, it rises up through the cooler, dense water. At the top of the pot, the water cools, increasing its density, which causes it to sink back down to the bottom. This movement distributes heat within the pot.

Related Resources

• Radiation and Albedo Activity
• How Clouds Form
• Atmospheric Circulation
• Virtual Balloon Activity

Inverted Bottles

Investigate convection by using food coloring and water at different temperatures.

• Four identical wide-mouth glass bottles
• Two index cards
• Food coloring, two colors
• Hot and cold water
• Two plastic plates or trays (to hold any spilled water)
• A partner (optional)

• Completely fill two bottles with hot water. Keep filling until a meniscus (an upward bulge) forms on the surface of the water.
• Completely fill two bottles with cold water. Keep filling until a meniscus (an upward bulge) forms on the surface of the water.

• Cut a piece of index card so it’s slightly bigger than the opening of a bottle, and then place the card on the mouth of the second hot-water bottle. Gently tap the index card. This will help to make sure that the card is in contact with the entire rim of the bottle.

Try to do this next step at the same time to both sets of bottles: Carefully slide the card out from between each set of bottles without spilling the water. (You might need a helping hand to do this.) Watch what happens to the fluid in each set of bottles.

When you removed the cards from one set of bottles, the hot water stayed on top and the cold water stayed on the bottom, with the colors staying pretty much the same. In the other set, however, something very different happened. The hot water rose, and the cold water sank. As this motion occurred, the colors mixed. This happened because of differences in density, which is defined by the amount of material in a given volume.

Everything is made of molecules. Hot molecules move more than cold molecules, and things that are hot typically take up more space than the same things when they are cold. This means it takes fewer hot-water molecules to fill a bottle than cold-water molecules. Hot water is therefore less dense than cold water.

Gravity can separate fluids by their density. Because the cold water has more mass per unit volume than hot water, the force of gravity on a given amount of cold water is larger than that on the same amount of hot water. This forces the cold water downward and causes the hot water to be pushed or lifted upward. This motion of fluids is called convection. In the set of bottles where the hot water was above the cold water, the cold water was already on the bottom, so there was no convection.

Have you ever climbed on a stepstool or ladder to change a lightbulb? If so, you might have noticed that the air higher up in the room is warmer. This is due to convection.

The next time you go swimming in a pool, try noticing the temperature difference between the surface water and the deeper water. Again, convection may have separated fluids by density, and the water below will be cooler.

Compare two bowls of hot soup. Leave one alone and blow across the surface of the other. Compare them, and you’ll find that the bowl you blow on will cool faster than the one you leave alone. When you blow on hot soup, you help drive the process of convection. The top surface cools and sinks, and the hot soup below rises and also gets cooled.

Convection affects fluid movement on small scales, as in this Snack, but it affects fluid movement on very large scales, too. As a result, this investigation can also be used to teach earth and space science phenomena. Convection is an important part of the weather cycle. It drives ocean currents, as well as the motion of semi-solid rock within the earth. Convection even moves material in stars.

Related Snacks

Weather in a Tank

A Laboratory Guide to Rotating Tank Fluid Experiments and Atmospheric Phenomena

Convection: How to

Introduction |  Tank – How to | Tank – Examples | Atmospheric_Examples  | Theory |  For_Teachers | Wiki

We can study convection in a laboratory setting using the apparatus sketched in the diagram below.

Fig.1 Apparatus for studying convection. Heat is supplied from an immersion heater above which is a grid with many small holes. Buoyant fluid bubbles up from below through the grid. The water above can be homogeneous, layered or stratified.

The convective elements themselves can be revealed by seeding with (very small) amounts of potassium permanganate or dye, illuminated from the rear and viewed from the front. Convection from localized sources can also be studied by blocking, as appropriate, regions of the grid. Convection can also be triggered from above through the use of ice cubes.

We take our tall (16”), thin (3” deep) tank and place the immersion heater in the bottom. The fine grid is put in place over the top. An acrylic white sheet is clamped to the back of the tank for illumination. For projection to a large class, or recording purposes, the tank can then be placed on the turntable and viewed from the camera above through use of a tilted mirror, as sketched in the diagram. Note that here the turntable is being used as a platform rather than as a spin device (although one can use the system to study rotating convection too!).

Fig.2 On the left we see an immersion heater on the base of the tank. On the right the heater has been covered by a grid providing a horizontal surface covered by many tiny holes through which water, warmed through contact with the heater, percolates.

Fig.3 Through use of a mirror, the experiment can be recorded or projected using the overhead camera.

The tank is then filled up with water. Several filling options can be used to set up different stratifications:

• unstratified: the tank is filled up with water at room temperature
• two-layer: salty water is used to fill the tank up to a depth of, say, 6”, and then fresh water is floated on top using a funnel connected to a diffuser. The fresh water (or indeed the salty water) can be dyed slightly to reveal the two-layer stratification more clearly – see Fig.3
• more continuous stratification: we have experimented with a number of simple methods. One that is sufficient for some purposes is to set up the two-layer stratification as in (ii) and then drag a coarse grid vertically, up and down, through the column. After 2 or 3 vertical sweeps, the fluid is allowed to settle. The stirring breaks down the initial two-layer stratification and replaces it with one which is more continuously stratified.

Fig.4 We see a two-layer stratification being set up through use of a funnel and porous pot. The clear fluid is salty: the dyed fluid is fresh.

The tank can be stratified using salt or heat. Salt has the advantage that it will remain for many hours and there are no problems associated with heat insulation. Very strong stratifications can be set up with salt. Heat has the advantage that the stratification can be measured using thermometers.

Once the working fluid has been stratified – by whichever method – and has been allowed to settle down for a minute or two, the heater is plugged in to the mains.

Note that the heater should never be switched on if it is not immersed in water. Otherwise it will overheat and fail.

The evolution of the convection is best viewed by sprinkling in (very small) amounts of potassium permanganate crystals, a shown below. Thermometers attached to the side of the tank, can be used to measure the evolution of the temperature at various heights above the bottom.

Fig. 5 A snapshot of the convecting boundary layer in the laboratory experiment. Note the undulations on the inversion caused by convection overshooting the well-mixed layer below into the stratified layer above. The green line indicates the approximate temperature profile on the tank.

Within the convection layer, the temperature is well mixed and constant as indicated by the vertical green line.  The shaded green box indicates the inversion region.  Warm water plumes rising from the convection layer overshoots the inversion due to its own momentum.  While the plume rises above the inversion, water from above the inversion displaces the rising plume thereby introducing water of different temperatures.  Above the transitional inversion layer, the water is stable and the temperature increases linearly with height.

14.6 Convection

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Discuss the method of heat transfer by convection.

Convection is driven by large-scale flow of matter. In the case of Earth, the atmospheric circulation is caused by the flow of hot air from the tropics to the poles, and the flow of cold air from the poles toward the tropics. (Note that Earth’s rotation causes the observed easterly flow of air in the northern hemisphere). Car engines are kept cool by the flow of water in the cooling system, with the water pump maintaining a flow of cool water to the pistons. The circulatory system is used the body: when the body overheats, the blood vessels in the skin expand (dilate), which increases the blood flow to the skin where it can be cooled by sweating. These vessels become smaller when it is cold outside and larger when it is hot (so more fluid flows, and more energy is transferred).

The body also loses a significant fraction of its heat through the breathing process.

While convection is usually more complicated than conduction, we can describe convection and do some straightforward, realistic calculations of its effects. Natural convection is driven by buoyant forces: hot air rises because density decreases as temperature increases. The house in Figure 14.17 is kept warm in this manner, as is the pot of water on the stove in Figure 14.18 . Ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation transfer energy from one part of the globe to another. Both are examples of natural convection.

Take-Home Experiment: Convection Rolls in a Heated Pan

Take two small pots of water and use an eye dropper to place a drop of food coloring near the bottom of each. Leave one on a bench top and heat the other over a stovetop. Watch how the color spreads and how long it takes the color to reach the top. Watch how convective loops form.

Example 14.7

Calculating heat transfer by convection: convection of air through the walls of a house.

Most houses are not airtight: air goes in and out around doors and windows, through cracks and crevices, following wiring to switches and outlets, and so on. The air in a typical house is completely replaced in less than an hour. Suppose that a moderately-sized house has inside dimensions 12.0 m × 18.0 m × 3.00 m 12.0 m × 18.0 m × 3.00 m high, and that all air is replaced in 30.0 min. Calculate the heat transfer per unit time in watts needed to warm the incoming cold air by 10 . 0º C 10 . 0º C , thus replacing the heat transferred by convection alone.

Heat is used to raise the temperature of air so that Q = mc Δ T Q = mc Δ T . The rate of heat transfer is then Q / t Q / t , where t t is the time for air turnover. We are given that Δ T Δ T is 10 . 0º C 10 . 0º C , but we must still find values for the mass of air and its specific heat before we can calculate Q Q . The specific heat of air is a weighted average of the specific heats of nitrogen and oxygen, which gives c = c p ≅ 1000  J/kg ⋅º C c = c p ≅ 1000  J/kg ⋅º C from Table 14.1 (note that the specific heat at constant pressure must be used for this process).

• Determine the mass of air from its density and the given volume of the house. The density is given from the density ρ ρ and the volume m = ρV = 1 . 29 kg/m 3 12 . 0 m × 18 . 0 m × 3.00 m = 836 kg. m = ρV = 1 . 29 kg/m 3 12 . 0 m × 18 . 0 m × 3.00 m = 836 kg. 14.37
• Calculate the heat transferred from the change in air temperature: Q = mc Δ T Q = mc Δ T so that Q = 836 kg 1000 J/kg ⋅º C 10.0º C = 8 . 36 × 10 6 J. Q = 836 kg 1000 J/kg ⋅º C 10.0º C = 8 . 36 × 10 6 J. 14.38
• Calculate the heat transfer from the heat Q Q and the turnover time t t . Since air is turned over in t = 0 . 500 h = 1800 s t = 0 . 500 h = 1800 s , the heat transferred per unit time is Q t = 8 . 36 × 10 6  J 1800  s = 4 . 64 kW. Q t = 8 . 36 × 10 6  J 1800  s = 4 . 64 kW. 14.39

This rate of heat transfer is equal to the power consumed by about forty-six 100-W light bulbs. Newly constructed homes are designed for a turnover time of 2 hours or more, rather than 30 minutes for the house of this example. Weather stripping, caulking, and improved window seals are commonly employed. More extreme measures are sometimes taken in very cold (or hot) climates to achieve a tight standard of more than 6 hours for one air turnover. Still longer turnover times are unhealthy, because a minimum amount of fresh air is necessary to supply oxygen for breathing and to dilute household pollutants. The term used for the process by which outside air leaks into the house from cracks around windows, doors, and the foundation is called “air infiltration.”

A cold wind is much more chilling than still cold air, because convection combines with conduction in the body to increase the rate at which energy is transferred away from the body. The table below gives approximate wind-chill factors, which are the temperatures of still air that produce the same rate of cooling as air of a given temperature and speed. Wind-chill factors are a dramatic reminder of convection’s ability to transfer heat faster than conduction. For example, a 15.0 m/s wind at 0º C 0º C has the chilling equivalent of still air at about − 18º C − 18º C .

Although air can transfer heat rapidly by convection, it is a poor conductor and thus a good insulator. The amount of available space for airflow determines whether air acts as an insulator or conductor. The space between the inside and outside walls of a house, for example, is about 9 cm (3.5 in) —large enough for convection to work effectively. The addition of wall insulation prevents airflow, so heat loss (or gain) is decreased. Similarly, the gap between the two panes of a double-paned window is about 1 cm, which prevents convection and takes advantage of air’s low conductivity to prevent greater loss. Fur, fiber, and fiberglass also take advantage of the low conductivity of air by trapping it in spaces too small to support convection, as shown in the figure. Fur and feathers are lightweight and thus ideal for the protection of animals.

Some interesting phenomena happen when convection is accompanied by a phase change . It allows us to cool off by sweating, even if the temperature of the surrounding air exceeds body temperature. Heat from the skin is required for sweat to evaporate from the skin, but without air flow, the air becomes saturated and evaporation stops. Air flow caused by convection replaces the saturated air by dry air and evaporation continues.

Example 14.8

Calculate the flow of mass during convection: sweat-heat transfer away from the body.

The average person produces heat at the rate of about 120 W when at rest. At what rate must water evaporate from the body to get rid of all this energy? (This evaporation might occur when a person is sitting in the shade and surrounding temperatures are the same as skin temperature, eliminating heat transfer by other methods.)

Energy is needed for a phase change ( Q = mL v Q = mL v ). Thus, the energy loss per unit time is

We divide both sides of the equation by L v L v to find that the mass evaporated per unit time is

(1) Insert the value of the latent heat from Table 14.2 , L v = 2430  kJ/kg = 2430  J/g L v = 2430  kJ/kg = 2430  J/g . This yields

Evaporating about 3 g/min seems reasonable. This would be about 180 g (about 7 oz) per hour. If the air is very dry, the sweat may evaporate without even being noticed. A significant amount of evaporation also takes place in the lungs and breathing passages.

Another important example of the combination of phase change and convection occurs when water evaporates from the oceans. Heat is removed from the ocean when water evaporates. If the water vapor condenses in liquid droplets as clouds form, heat is released in the atmosphere. Thus, there is an overall transfer of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere. This process is the driving power behind thunderheads, those great cumulus clouds that rise as much as 20.0 km into the stratosphere. Water vapor carried in by convection condenses, releasing tremendous amounts of energy. This energy causes the air to expand and rise, where it is colder. More condensation occurs in these colder regions, which in turn drives the cloud even higher. Such a mechanism is called positive feedback, since the process reinforces and accelerates itself. These systems sometimes produce violent storms, with lightning and hail, and constitute the mechanism driving hurricanes.

The movement of icebergs is another example of convection accompanied by a phase change. Suppose an iceberg drifts from Greenland into warmer Atlantic waters. Heat is removed from the warm ocean water when the ice melts and heat is released to the land mass when the iceberg forms on Greenland.

Check Your Understanding

Explain why using a fan in the summer feels refreshing!

Using a fan increases the flow of air: warm air near your body is replaced by cooler air from elsewhere. Convection increases the rate of heat transfer so that moving air “feels” cooler than still air.

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-introduction-to-science-and-the-realm-of-physics-physical-quantities-and-units

• Authors: Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs
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• Book title: College Physics 2e
• Publication date: Jul 13, 2022
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Science Projects > Earth & Space Projects > Hot Water: Convection  

Hot Water: Convection

Geothermal science projects, water convection science project.

Try this experiment to get an idea of where the hot water for hot springs comes from.

What You Need:

• 4 identical, clear, wide-mouthed jars (or just reuse 2 identical jars)
• Blue food coloring
• Red food coloring
• Two small pieces of thin tag board, index cards, or wax paper
• A place that is okay to get wet

What You Do:

1. Take your materials to the place that is okay to get wet.

2. Fill two of the jars to the rim with cold tap water. Place a couple of drops of blue food coloring in each jar (enough to make the water noticeably blue). Add a few more drops of cold water so that a bulge of water forms over the rim.

3. Fill the other two jars to the rim with hot water from the tap. Place a couple of drops of red food coloring in each jar (enough to make the water noticeably red). Add a few more drops of hot water so that a bulge of water forms over the rim.

4. Take one of the red jars and place the tag board on top, letting the water seal the tag board to the jar. Using one hand to keep the tag board on the mouth of the jar, quickly turn the jar over. The water seal will keep the tag board stuck to the rim and will prevent water from leaking out.

5. Place the upside-down jar on top of a blue jar. Align the two mouths of the jars together and then, holding both jars steady, have someone else carefully remove the tag board, keeping the mouths of the jars together as much as possible.

6. You should now have the red jar sitting upside down on top of the blue jar, both filled with their respective water. What do you notice about the water?

7. Now, take a new piece of tag board and place it on the second blue jar. Using the same method as before, place the second blue jar on top of the second red jar, making sure the mouths are aligned.

8. Remove the tag board and watch the water in the two jars. What happens to the water?

What Happened:

When the red jar was placed on top of the blue jar, the distinction between red water and blue water stayed fairly clear. But when the blue jar was placed on top of the red jar, there was a very rapid mixing of colors. Why is this?

Well, simply put, cold water is “heavier” than hot water. When the hot water is heated, the water molecules start moving around pretty fast and move apart from each other. The water molecules in the cold water, on the other hand, are packed closer together. So, in two equal size jars, more cold water molecules can fit in their jar than hot water molecules can fit in their jar. In scientific terms, the cold water is more dense than the hot water. So when hot water is placed beneath cold water, it will rise up while the cold water sinks down. This causes the mixing of the water you saw earlier. However, when the hot water is placed on top of the cold water, nothing moves because the hot water is already where it wants to be – at the top.

The water in hot springs generally originates as cold rain water or snow melt. This cold water sinks into the ground until it reaches a layer of rock that is being heated by a chamber of magma. The hot rock heats the water, and the hot water rises back up to the surface of the Earth in the form of hot springs. This cycle of cold water sinking and hot water rising is known as convection. (The same is true of air – hot air rises while cold air sinks.)

Fumaroles Science Project

Ever wonder why some fumaroles produce large amounts of steam, while others produce very little? Try out this experiment to find out one of the reasons! This experiment requires adult help and supervision.

• Medium saucepan
• Disposable tin pie pan
• Stove or hot plate

1. Fill the saucepan about half full with water and place it on the stove. Heat it until the water is steaming but not boiling.

2. While waiting for the water to heat, take the pie pan and turn it upside down. Use the hammer and nail to gently put a small hole in the center of the pan.

3. Put the oven mitts on and place the pan right side up over the pot. What does the steam do?

4. Still wearing the oven mitts, take the pie pan off towards you so that it makes a shield between you and the steam. Never lift the pan off away from you, or the escaping steam may burn you!

5. Turn the pan over again and gently hammer another hole into the bottom of the pan, about an inch away from the first hole.

6. Place the pan on the pot again. What do you see happening to the steam?

7. Continue this cycle about 4 or 5 times, adding one more nail hole with each new cycle. What do you notice happening to the steam with each new hole in the pan?

In this experiment, you were demonstrating how fumaroles work. A fumarole is a vent (hole) that lets out steam from within the Earth. The holes in the tin pan are simulating how steam escapes the Earth. When there is just one hole or fumarole, steam only has one exit, causing it to exit quickly and forcefully. Sometimes, the amount of steam coming out of one fumarole becomes too much for it, and the steam will follow cracks in the Earth to a new place to vent out of the surface. This formation of a new fumarole causes the pressure of the steam to ease up a bit, and the escaping steam comes out less quickly and less forcefully from both fumaroles. The more fumaroles present, the less pressure the steam is under. Later on in the life of these fumaroles, the steam escaping may decrease due to not enough water and/or a decrease in the heat from the underground magma chamber, causing smaller steaming vents.

Geothermal Science Lesson

What causes geothermal areas.

In places such as Yellowstone National Park, New Zealand, and Iceland, the land is covered in spewing geysers, colorful hot springs, and bubbling mud pots. Even in winter, these areas are very steamy. These parts of the Earth are known as geothermal areas and form when an abundant source of water meets an intense source of heat. Since the Earth is covered in about 70% water, it’s the heat source that is crucial.

Beneath the Earth’s crust is a layer of magma (hot liquid rock). Geothermal areas exist where this magma is closer to the surface of the Earth than in other areas, causing these regions to have significantly higher surface temperatures. For instance, the average thickness of the Earth’s crust is about 12 to 50 miles thick, but in Yellowstone National Park, the magma chamber (magma housed by a layer of rock) is only 3 miles below the surface. Volcanoes are one of the main ways that magma gets pushed up so close to the surface. For this reason, geothermal areas often exist close to where volcanoes exist, though sometimes there is no apparent evidence of a volcano nearby. In these cases, it may be an isolated hotspot in the crust of the Earth where a new volcano may someday appear, or it is the remnants of an extinct volcano.

Features of Geothermal Areas

Hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, and mud pots are all geothermal features. They arise when cold groundwater seeps down and is heated by the rocks touching the underlying magma chamber. The hot water then rises to the surface in the form of a geothermal feature.

Hot springs occur when this heated water forms a pool on the surface of the Earth. Since that’s all it takes to form a hot spring, it the most common geothermal feature and can be found in places all over the Earth. Hot springs vary in temperature and can be calm, effervescent, or boiling depending on how hot the magma chamber below it is. When the hot water travels up, it dissolves material from the surrounding bedrock and brings this material up to the surface with it. For this reason, hot springs tend to be full of minerals, and people have used these hot pools for medicinal purposes for centuries. However, not all hot springs are safe to bathe in. Some are way too hot and/or way too acidic and can severely injure anyone stepping foot in them.

A geyser is a type of hot spring that periodically erupts, shooting columns of water and steam into the air. Like hot springs, geysers need an abundant supply of water and an intense heat source to exist. However, one more key ingredient is needed to keep them from being just a hot spring – the right plumbing. Unlike hot springs where the heated water has a simple path to travel upwards to reach the surface, geysers have a complex network of underground tunnels and reservoirs that trap the water and delay its arrival to the surface. While the water is trapped in the ground – sometimes as low as 10,000 feet – it gets heated far above the normal boiling point. However, due to the immense pressure that far down in the ground, the water cannot boil. The super heated water rises to the surface. As it rises, the pressure becomes less and less, and the water starts to boil and steam starts to escape. This release of steam allows some of the water to overflow out of the geyser’s mouth. This alleviates the pressure on the water below, causing a chain reaction. As the water at the top of the plumbing system starts to boil, it expands and is shot out of the geyser. This removes the pressure on the water below it, which suddenly boils and expands, causing the lower water to also be ejected out of the mouth of the geyser. This keeps happening to all the water within the chambers until there is no longer enough water left to continue the eruption. Groundwater then starts seeping back into this underground network, starting the cycle all over again.

Fumaroles are basically steam vents that allow water vapor and gases to escape the surface of the Earth. They can be found at the base of volcanoes or in geothermal fields, both on land and on the floor of the ocean. They are hotter than hot springs and geysers because any groundwater that enters a fumarole is instantly turned into steam – no liquid water is present in fumaroles. For this reason, they are sometimes called “dry geysers.”

One more unique feature found in these areas are mud pots . Mud pots are basically very acidic hot springs that dissolve the nearby rock. This rock turns into fine particles of clay and silica that becomes suspended in the water. Due to their sometimes close proximity to volcanoes, volcanic ash often gets mixed in the sediment in a mud pot. The hot water and steam rises from below, forming bubbles that burst when they reach the top. The bursting bubbles fling water and sediment to the edges and the ejected sediment builds a mound around the mud pot, making the opening look like a crater. A delicate balance of water and sediment is needed in order to keep a mud pot a mud pot. Too much water, and it becomes a hot spring. Too little water, and it becomes dry, cracked earth. Most mud pots go through cycles of overly wet to overly dry to just the right amount of water, depending on the season and the water table of the area.

Many of these geothermal features are very colorful. These colors are due to the substances found in the water, and the color is a very good indicator of what these substances are. If a spring has a red color to it, most likely it is caused by a large amount of iron. If it is yellow, it is probably due to the presence of sulfur (though the smell of rotten eggs pretty much guarantees it is sulfur). Pinks and whites are often caused by the presence of calcium.

Amazingly, not all of the colors are caused by minerals. Due to the extreme heat and high acidity of many hot springs, for a long time it was believed that life forms could not exist in them. Then it was discovered that microorganisms known as thermophiles (literally “heat loving”) can live and actually thrive in this very hot water. If the water is blue or green in color, that gives a very good indication that microorganisms, such as algae, protozoa, and bacteria, make their home here.

Flashback in History: The Pink and White Terraces

The beauty of geothermal areas often overshadows the ever present danger related with them. Seeing abundant wildlife and vegetation seeming to live harmoniously with bubbling hot springs and spewing geysers leads many to believe that these areas are unique but tame places. However, in many of these areas, there is a dormant giant that awakes with very little notice. One such place is on the North Island of New Zealand near a town called Rotorua.

During the mid to late 1800’s, this geothermal area was a popular tourist destination for many European travelers. Like Yellowstone National Park, the area is full of hot springs, geysers, mud pots, and fumaroles. But its main attraction was the famous Pink and White Terraces, known for their awesome beauty and use as warm mineral baths. They were formed by hot springs and geysers at the top of two hills. The hot water full of dissolved calcium bicarbonate would flow down the hills, leaving behind calcium carbonate precipitate that formed into limestone and travertine terraces, which were filled with water. The calcium carbonate and other minerals in the water colored the terraces so that they were named appropriately enough the White Terraces and the Pink Terraces.

However, in the early morning hours of June 10, 1886, the volcano Mount Tarawera erupted and spewed hot mud, huge boulders, and thick ash over an estimated area of 5,800 square miles. The eruption lasted for about four hours and was so violent that it completely destroyed the Pink and White Terraces. Two Maori villages (natives of New Zealand) that thrived on the tourism created by the terraces were also completely wiped out, being buried in the huge mudslide created by the erupting mountain. All that remains of the Pink and White Terraces are black and white photos .

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Science project, heat convection in liquids.

Energy is all about action! Thermal energy is transferred in many ways. The thermal energy of a substance can be determined by adding up all the kinetic and potential energy of its molecules. Convection is one form of energy transfer where heat energy is transferred by large scale movement in a gas or liquid. Convection currents form, which are streams of gas or liquid powered by convection. Some of this movement is caused by differences in density . You might remember that density how much matter there is in a given amount of space. In this convection current experiment for kids, you are going to make convection currents in water, which you will be able to observe with the help of food coloring.

How does the convection of water work?

• Clear quart container or jar
• Coffee mug or other container that can withstand heat
• Blue food coloring
• Fill the clear jar halfway with cold water.
• Place the jar freezer for 15 minutes.  You don’t want the water to freeze.
• Fill the coffee mug about ¼ full with hot water.
• Add 10 drops of blue food coloring to the hot water and stir.
• Remove the jar from the freezer and set it on table.  Wait until all the sloshing around from moving it has stopped.
• Fill the dropper with hot blue water.
• Lower the tip of the dropper until it is near the bottom of the large jar.
• Carefully release two drops of hot blue water onto the cold water.  Observe what happens, looking at the side and top of the jar.
• Add ten more drops, two drops at a time, observing what happens between each.
• Once you have added all the hot blue liquid drops, observe the jar for an additional five minutes.

When you squeeze of the drops of water with blue dye near the bottom of jar, most of it rises through the cold water and then continues to travel across the water’s surface.   Ripples of blue color move through the water.  A blue layer forms at the top of water in the jar.  As time goes by, some of the blue water begins to sink, and after five to ten minutes, all of the water turns a lighter shade of blue.

The hot blue water molecules had more kinetic energy than the cold water molecules. That means the blue water molecules were colliding more, and pushing each other part. This lowered the density of the blue water because fewer molecules could fit in the given volume. The less dense blue water therefore rose through the cold water and floated at the top. Those streams of blue fluid you saw were convection currents. Over time, thanks to the convection currents, the hot water mixed with the cold water, evening out the temperature overall. The blue food coloring also diffused throughout the liquid. Diffusion happens constantly. The blue food coloring molecules moved from higher concentration in the hot water and zero concentration in the clear water to create a more uniform distribution throughout the liquid, giving it an even, light blue appearance.   

Going Further

Do some research on warm and cold ocean currents. Water of different temperatures can move hundreds of miles!

Related learning resources

Add to collection, create new collection, new collection, new collection>, sign up to start collecting.

Bookmark this to easily find it later. Then send your curated collection to your children, or put together your own custom lesson plan.

Convection Heat Science Experiment

Categories STEM Activities , Science Experiments

Use these simple heat experiments to show kids how convection heat works and why heat rises right in front of their eyes. Fascinating science experiments for kids! 

I’ve wanted to try convection heat experiments with my kids for quite some time now. It looked so magical and other-wordly to see all those pearly colors swirling around with the heat. We learned some valuable lessons about exactly where the heat from our stove is coming from, too, which is probably why it cooks food so unevenly!

If you conduct this experiment with a large group, I recommend using a hot plate. First, because it is easier to haul around, and secondly, it produces a more even, low heat, which is better for seeing swirls.

Our mixture eventually got to hot and it didn’t look as cool when the dye moved from place to place.

Learn what is convection heat for kids!

Learn About What is Convection for Kids!

Try this easy convection heat experiment in the classroom or at home!

Related: STEM Activities for Kids!

The Science: How Convection Heat Works

When you heat a fluid, its density is reduced and volume is expanded. At first, the soap and the water is evenly disributed in the pan, but when it heats up, the liquids at the bottom get warm first. This causes them to become less dense and rise to the top. The cool liquid is pushed to the bottom of the pan, where it in turn is heated and pushed to the top.

The pearly soap and food coloring make this easy to see.

What You’ll Need for the Convection Heat Experiment:

Disclaimer: This post includes affiliate links for your convenience at no cost to you.

• Aluminum pie plate (or a regular pie or cake pan)
• Liquid food coloring
• A pearly shampoo or conditioner ( we used my husband’s Old Spice , it was the only pearly soap we had!)
• Stove or hot plate

First, mix your soap and water in a 2 to 1 ratio with twice as much water as soap. You will want to just cover the bottom of the pan (at least, ours worked better with a shallow amount of water). Try not to make extra bubbles.

You can leave the mixture its original color, or add dye to the entire pan. Bo was excited to add the food coloring, which is why we dyed our base soap.

Turn the heat on low and wait. You will see the liquid starting to rise by the changes in the color of the soapy water.

Once it starts to turn over, it’s ready to add more dye.

Drop a drop or two of food coloring in different areas of the pan. Watch as it is slowly rolled into the other colors. 

Convection heat at work!

Find more winter science experiments here!

Winter STEM Activities by Grade Level

Try these winter STEM activities for each grade level!

Winter Science Experiments for Toddlers

Winter STEM Activities for Preschool

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Winter STEM Activities for 1st Grade

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Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Heat transfer occurs when thermal energy moves from one place to another. Atoms and molecules inherently have kinetic and thermal energy, so all matter participates in heat transfer. There are three main types of heat transfer, plus other processes that move energy from high temperature to low temperature.

What Is Heat Transfer?

Heat transfer is the movement of heat due to a temperature difference between a system and its surroundings. The energy transfer is always from higher temperature to lower temperature, due to the second law of thermodynamics . The units of heat transfer are the joule (J), calorie (cal), and kilocalorie (kcal). The unit for the rate of heat transfer is the kilowatt (KW).

The Three Types of Heat Transfer With Examples

The three types of heat transfer differ according to the nature of the medium that transmits heat:

• Conduction requires contact.
• Convection requires fluid flow.
• Radiation does not require any medium.
• Conduction is heat transfer directly between neighboring atoms or molecules. Usually, it is heat transfer through a solid. For example, the metal handle of a pan on a stove becomes hot due to convection. Touching the hot pan conducts heat to your hand.
• Convection is heat transfer via the movement of a fluid, such as air or water. Heating water on a stove is a good example. The water at the top of the pot becomes hot because water near the heat source rises. Another example is the movement of air around a campfire. Hot air rises, transferring heat upward. Meanwhile, the partial vacuum left by this movement draws in cool outside air that feeds the fire with fresh oxygen.
• Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic radiation. While it occurs through a medium, it does not require one. For example, it’s warm outside on a sunny day because solar radiation crosses space and heats the atmosphere. The burner element of a stove also emits radiation. However, some heat from a burner comes from conduction between the hot element and a metal pan. Most real-life processes involve multiple forms of heat transfer.

Conduction requires that molecules touch each other, making it a slower process than convection or radiation. Atoms and molecules with a lot of energy have more kinetic energy and engage in more collisions with other matter. They are “hot.” When hot matter interacts with cold matter, some energy gets transferred during the collision. This drives conduction. Forms of matter that readily conduct heat are called thermal conductors .

Examples of Conduction

Conduction is a common process in everyday life. For example:

• Holding an ice cube immediately makes your hands feel cold. Meanwhile, the heat transferred from your skin to the ice melts it into liquid water.
• Walking barefoot on a hot road or sunny beach burns your feet because the solid material transmits heat into your foot.
• Iron clothes transfers heat from the iron to the fabric.
• The handle of a coffee cup filled with hot coffee becomes warm or even hot via conduction through the mug material.

Conduction Equation

One equation for conduction calculates heat transfer per unit of time from thermal conductivity, area, thickness of the material, and the temperature difference between two regions:

Q = [K ∙ A ∙ (T hot – T cold )] / d

• Q is heat transfer per unit time
• K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the substance
• A is the area of heat transfer
• T hot  is the temperature of the hot region
• T cold  is the temperature of the cold region
• d is the thickness of the body

Convection is the movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature to lower temperature regions. Changing the temperature of a fluid affects its density, producing convection currents. If the volume of a fluid increases, than its density decreases and it becomes buoyant.

Examples of Convection

Convection is a familiar process on Earth, primarily involving air or water. However, it applies to other fluids, such as refrigeration gases and magma. Examples of convection include:

• Boiling water undergoes convection as less dense hot molecules rise through higher density cooler molecules.
• Hot air rises and cooler air sinks and replaces it.
• Convection drives global circulation in the oceans between the equators and poles.
• A convection oven circulates hot air and cooks more evenly than one that only uses heating elements or a gas flame.

Convection Equation

The equation for the rate of convection relates area and the difference between the fluid temperature and surface temperature:

Q = h c  ∙ A ∙ (T s  – T f )

• Q is the heat transfer per unit time
• h c  is the coefficient of convective heat transfer
• T s  is the surface temperature
• T f  is the fluid temperature

Radiation is the release of electromagnetic energy. Another name for thermal radiation is radiant heat. Unlike conduction or convection, radiation requires no medium for heat transfer. So, radiation occurs both within a medium (solid, liquid, gas) or through a vacuum.

Examples of Radiation

There are many examples of radiation:

• A microwave oven emits microwave radiation, which increases the thermal energy in food
• The Sun emits light (including ultraviolet radiation) and heat
• Uranium-238 emits alpha radiation as it decays into thorium-234

Radiation Equation

The Stephan-Boltzmann law describes relationship between the power and temperature of thermal radiation:

P = e ∙ σ ∙ A· (Tr – Tc) 4

• P is the net power of radiation
• A is the area of radiation
• Tr is the radiator temperature
• Tc is the surrounding temperature
• e is emissivity
• σ is Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67 × 10 -8 Wm -2 K -4 )

More Heat Transfer – Chemical Bonds and Phase Transitions

While conduction, convection, and radiation are the three modes of heat transfer, other processes absorb and release heat. For example, atoms release energy when chemical bonds break and absorb energy in order to form bonds. Releasing energy is an exergonic process, while absorbing energy is an endergonic process. Sometimes the energy is light or sound, but most of the time it’s heat, making these processes exothermic and endothermic .

Phase transitions between the states of matter also involve the absorption or release of energy. A great example of this is evaporative cooling, where the phase transition from a liquid into a vapor absorbs thermal energy from the environment.

• Faghri, Amir; Zhang, Yuwen; Howell, John (2010). Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer . Columbia, MO: Global Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-9842760-0-4.
• Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). Transport Processes and Separation Principles (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-101367-X.
• Peng, Z.; Doroodchi, E.; Moghtaderi, B. (2020). “Heat transfer modelling in Discrete Element Method (DEM)-based simulations of thermal processes: Theory and model development”. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science . 79: 100847. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2020.100847
• Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-93354-0.

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Colorful Convection Currents

Invisible convection currents are revealed using a very colorful demonstration.

Print this Experiment

Cool, crisp, clean mountain air has long been an important reason why people move to Colorado, USA. Unfortunately, the air in the city of Denver isn’t quite as clean as it has been. By the 1970s, pollution over the city had a name—the “brown cloud.” Denver’s location at the foot of the Rocky Mountains makes it prone to temperature inversions in which warm air higher in the atmosphere traps cooler air near the ground. This condition prevents pollutants from escaping into the atmosphere. However, the phenomenon of temperature inversion is not unique to Denver, as evidenced by numerous reports of similar brown cloud sightings over major cities throughout the world. This demonstration provides a great illustration of what’s really happening in the atmosphere as hot and cold air masses meet.

Experiment Videos

Here's What You'll Need

Four empty, identical bottles (browse the juice aisle at a grocery store to find bottles similar to those shown. as a general rule, the opening of the bottle should be at least an inch [25 mm] in diameter.), access to hot and cold water, food coloring (yellow and blue) or fizzers coloring tablets, 3 x 5 inch (8 x 13 cm) card or an old playing card, masking tape, paper towels, adult supervision, let's try it.

Fill two of the bottles with hot water from the tap and the other two bottles with cold water. Use masking tape and a pen to label the bottles “HOT” and “COLD.”

Use yellow food coloring in the warm water and blue food coloring in the cold water. Each bottle must be filled to the brim with water.

Your first observation will be what happens when the bottle filled with hot water sits on top of the bottle filled with cold water. To do this, place the card over the mouth of a  hot water bottle (the yellow water). This can be a little tricky, but with practice you’ll get it. Hold the card in place as you turn the bottle upside down and place it on top of a  cold water bottle  (the blue water). The two bottles should be positioned so that they are mouth-to-mouth with the card separating the two liquids. (Have paper towels close by in case everything doesn’t go exactly as planned.)

Carefully slide the card out from between the two bottles. Make sure you are holding the top bottle as you remove the card. Watch what happens to the colored liquids in the two bottles with the card removed.

The second part of the experiment is similar to the first. This time, you need to place the cold water (blue) on top of the hot water (yellow). Repeat Steps 3 and 4 and carefully remove the card. Watch what happens this time.

How Does It Work

Hot air balloons rise because warm air in a balloon is lighter and less dense than cold air. Similarly, warm water is lighter or less dense than cold water. When the bottle of warm water is placed on top of the cold water, the more dense cold water stays in the bottom bottle and the less dense warm water is confined to the top bottle. However, when the cold water bottle sits on top of the warm water bottle, the less dense warm water rises into the top bottle and the cold water sinks into the bottom bottle. The movement of the water is clearly seen as the yellow and blue food colorings mix, creating a green liquid.

The movement of the warm and cold water inside the bottles is referred to as a convection current. In our daily life, warm currents of water occur in oceans. The warm Gulf Stream moves northward along the American Eastern Seaboard and crosses the Atlantic Ocean all the way to Europe. Convection currents in the atmosphere are responsible for the formation of thunderstorms as warm and cold air masses collide.

Although the colored liquids that mix are more interesting to watch, the other set of warm and cold water bottles helps to illustrate an important phenomenon that can occur in the atmosphere in cooler months. During daylight hours, the Sun heats the surface of the Earth and the layer of air closest to the Earth warms. This warm air rises and mixes with other atmospheric gases. When the Sun goes down, less dense warm air higher in the atmosphere blankets the colder air closer to the surface. Because the colder air is more dense than the warm air, the colder air is trapped close to the Earth and the atmospheric gases do not mix. This is referred to as a  temperature inversion .

Real-World Application

What are the results of a temperature inversion in the atmosphere? Air pollution is much more noticeable during a temperature inversion since pollutants such as car exhaust and particulates are trapped in the layer of cool air close to the surface. As a result, state agencies in many parts of the country oxygenate automobile fuels during winter months with additives like MTBE in an attempt to reduce the harmful effects of trapped pollution. It is this trapped pollution that causes the brown cloud effect. Wind or precipitation can often alleviate the brown cloud by stirring and breaking up the layer of warm air that traps the cold air and pollution near the surface of the Earth.

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Study on three-dimensional natural convection heat transfer in a house with two heating surfaces

• Published: 24 September 2024

Cite this article

• Han-Taw Chen 1 ,
• Soft-Heart Wang 1 ,
• Saman Rashidi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6266-920X 2 &
• Wei-Mon Yan 3 , 4  

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In order to explore the heat transfer properties of natural convection in the cavity, this article uses the three-dimensional CFD inverse method and the temperature measurement points based on the experimental results. In addition, different flow modes and mesh divisions are used. For the applicability of different turbulence models, the least squares method is then used to calculate Q value of the heat source in the cavity and compare that with the experimental measurement results and consistent with the overall trend. Finally, the temperature distribution diagram and velocity streamline diagram of the simulation results are provided to visualize the flow field and analyze its heat transfer characteristics. The results show that the flow pattern and the number of grid points have a great influence on the results. In terms of experiments, with the change of the cavity size and the influence of the opening, the air flow will be different. To achieve the effect of enhancing natural convection, due to the inflow of a large amount of cold air, although the overall temperature of the cavity is greatly reduced, the upper cold wall is surrounded by cold air, which reduces the heat transfer coefficient. In order to verify the reliability and usability of the results of the inverse algorithm in this article, the obtained results of heat transfer coefficient and heat dissipation are compared with previous results or empirical formulas in other related literature. When the height drops from h = 0.1 m to h = 0.05 m, the average increase in heat transfer coefficient is 2.79%; while for the height drops from h = 0.05 m to h = 0.02 m, the average increase in heat transfer coefficient is 74.8%. When side fin length is reduced form W 2 = 0.1 m to W 2 = 0.08 m, the average increase in heat transfer coefficient is 14.33%; when side fin length is reduced form W 2 = 0.08 m to W 2 = 0.06 m, the average increase in heat transfer coefficient is 41.28%.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by both Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant No. MOST 109- 2221-E-006-036) and Ministry of Education (Higher Education Sprout Project through Research Center of Energy Conservation for New Generation of Residential, Commercial, and Industrial Sectors).

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan

Han-Taw Chen & Soft-Heart Wang

Department of Energy, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran

Saman Rashidi

Department of Energy and Refrigerating Air-Conditioning Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, 10608, Taiwan

Wei-Mon Yan

Research Center of Energy Conservation for New Generation of Residential, Commercial, and Industrial Sectors, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, 10608, Taiwan

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Chen, HT., Wang, SH., Rashidi, S. et al. Study on three-dimensional natural convection heat transfer in a house with two heating surfaces. J Therm Anal Calorim (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13521-w

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Received : 07 May 2024

Accepted : 20 July 2024

Published : 24 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13521-w

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