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177 Human Rights Research Topics: Bright Ideas List 2023

Do you have a college research project or thesis on human rights and have been wondering how to prepare a good paper? You need a number of things, such as good research, analytical, and writing skills. However, the first step is getting the right topic. This is very challenging for most students, but we are here to help. This post provides a 177 human rights topics list that you can count on for the best grade. We will also tell you how to craft a great university human rights dissertation.

A Brief about Human Rights

Human rights are the basic freedoms and rights that belong to all persons in the globe, starting from birth to death. These rights apply irrespective of where you are, personal beliefs, or the way you decide to live your life. They cannot be taken away but can be restricted in some cases, such as if you break the law.

The basic rights are anchored on shared values, such as dignity, fairness, equality, independence, and respect. They are all protected by law. Because of their wide applications in areas such as the justice system and employment-related topics, you can expect to get many related school assignments and projects on it.

How to Write a Good Human Rights Thesis or Dissertation

Before we can look at the best human rights thesis topics, let’s look at the best process of writing it. This can be divided into six main steps:

• Identify the study topic in line with your class teacher/professor’s recommendations. You can use our list of basic human rights topics that comes shortly after this guide.
• Research the topic well to ensure it has ample resources. Then, identify the main points that will be covered during the study. It will be good to think about the entire dissertation right from the start because all parts are interconnected.
• Develop a thesis statement. This is very important because it will be tested after analyzing the results.
• Develop a good structure for the thesis. This is the outline that will guide you on what to include at what point. Carefully look at the current recommendation from your school. One of the best outlines you might want to consider include:

Introduction Literature review Methodology Results Analysis and discussion Conclusion Bibliography

• Prepare the first draft.
• Write the final draft by redefining the first draft. At this point, it will be a good idea to consider editing services from experts.

Next, we will highlight the main topics that you should consider in human rights. However, we’d like to remind that you can only pay for thesis and not waste your time over a tone of assignments.

Top Human Rights Research Topics

• How does social discrimination impact people living with HIV/AIDS?
• Same-sex marriage: Why is it more social compared to religious significance?
• A review of international reaction to sweatshops in Asian countries.
• A closer look at the flaws of morals for kids raised in the US compared to those brought up in Japan.
• A comprehensive review of the employment problem arising from the surge of the immigrant population.
• Human rights violations in a country of choice: How has it impacted its image?
• War against terrorism: How is it impacting human rights?
• Should prisoners retain their voting rights?
• Should the US cut trade ties with countries that grossly violate human rights?
• Universal human rights: Are they achievable in the modern world?
• Is there a point where human rights can be justified in the interest of national security?
• Use of cameras in public places: Do they violate human rights?
• Non-governmental organizations’ operations: Are they strong enough to help protect human rights?
• Promotion of human rights: Should it be the first priority for every government?
• Capitalistic systems: Do they defend or violate human rights?
• Comparing the policies for human rights protection of the United States and India.
• A review of human rights violations during the 2021 US army withdrawal from Afghanistan.
• Should the US be held accountable for the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945?
• Human rights in the US and Latin America: A comparison.
• Compare two historical human rights portraits in the 20 th century.

Argumentative Human Rights Topics

• Is violation of human rights allowed during times of war?
• Circumcision of infants: Does it violate their human rights?
• Should women and men have varying rights?
• What is the link between human rights and traditions?
• Capital punishment: Should it be considered a violation of human rights?
• Right for freedom to education: Should it be made available for all?
• Social media networking services: Should they guarantee privacy for all the clients.
• Is the US policy on immigration discriminatory?
• Interest of states: Should it take precedence over an individual’s human rights?
• Developed countries have a duty to promote human rights in the developing states.
• Pet ownership should be considered a universal human right.
• Childhood concept differs from one culture to another: Should the notion of child labor also vary?
• What are inappropriate ways of fighting for human rights?
• Development of a country: Does it depend on the country’s defense of human rights?
• From a human rights perspective, which is the most important amendment to the US constitution?
• Comparing Apartheid and Holocaust: Has justice been done for the victims.
• Human rights in the 21 st century: Is the globe doing enough to address the crisis in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia and Afghanistan?
• What are the most important lessons on human rights from World War II?
• Human rights violations in West Bank: Has the globe done enough?

International Human Rights Topics

• What does the distribution of the COVID-19 vaccines tell us about human rights internationally?
• A review of cases of human rights in the United States between the 1950 and 2000.
• Analyze the impacts of discrimination based on color and race.
• A thematic review of modern human rights movements.
• Trace the evolution of human rights starting from the ancient times to the age of globalization.
• What is the relationship between human rights and peace in a country? A case study of the Netherlands.
• Disability in the UK is under attack: Discuss.
• Who should people running away from human rights violations turn to?
• Is it appropriate to deny human rights on the basis of religion and gender?
• Violation of human rights in North Korea: How is the developed world preparing to tackle it?
• Violation of human rights in Venezuela: Should the United States get involved?
• The right to stay silent in a court of law: How is this likely to affect the accused person?
• What are the best remedies for addressing violations of women’s rights in the Middle East?
• Will the world ever get to a point where people will live without worrying about human rights violations?
• What makes it so difficult to introduce gun control in the United States?
• Who should be held responsible for cases of mass shootings in schools?

Controversial Human Rights Topics

• What are the similarities and differences between human and civil rights?
• Evaluate the violation of human rights in Syria in the 21 st century.
• Police-related human rights violation: How can we prevent it?
• Should prisoners have a right to vote?
• Assisted euthanasia is a violation of human rights: Discuss.
• Should persons who try to take their own lives be charged in a court of law?
• What is the best way to punish states for violating human rights?
• Countries arming themselves with nuclear weapons are readying to violate human rights.
• How effective are laws on domestic violence in the UK?
• All cases of human abuses in history should be tried and concluded.
• Is the UN doing enough to protect human rights?
• Holocaust: Is it possible for the world to heal completely?
• Do you think that the Rwanda Genocide could have been avoided?
• It is time to act: How do you think the global community should handle the problem of immigrants trying to cross from Africa into Europe?
• The hidden danger of not addressing bullying in school.
• Is disciplining a child a violation of human rights?
• Are correctional facilities doing enough to correct the behavior of inmates?
• Is imprisonment enough to punish murder criminals?
• Making a case for life imprisonment and the death penalty for murder criminals.
• Is abortion a violation of human rights?

Human Rights Discussion Topics

• What is your view on the famous revolt of the Cockroach People?
• Discuss the outcomes of the LGBT movements in the 20 th century.
• A deeper look into civil rights movements from Malcolm X point of view.
• Interaction between Japan and China during WWII: How did it impact human rights issues in the two states?
• Discuss the biggest human rights violations in South Africa after Apartheid.
• UN Refugee program: How does it help enhance refugees’ welfare across the globe?
• French Revolution and human rights: A thematic review.
• Human rights in medieval Europe.
• Human Rights Act in New Zealand in 1993: What is its significance?
• Which human rights did women across the globe find hard to access in the 20 th century?
• Police brutality in Brazil: Are the efforts taken by the government enough?
• Discuss transgender rights in Europe.
• A review of transgender human rights issues in the United States.
• Disability rights in the UK.
• Comparing disability policies in the US and India.
• Racial profiling by police.
• What are the roots of racism in the United States?
• Review the Trail of Broken Treaties.
• A deeper look at the Chattel Slavery in the Colonial America.
• Review the African-American male experience.
• Reviewing the history of the Bill of Rights in the United States.
• Analyzing the American Indian Movement: How does it compare with other human rights movements?
• Human rights in modern cinema: How are whites and people of color-treated?

Interesting Civil Rights Topics

• Black Power Movement: How did it impact the Black Lives Matter in 2020 and 2021?
• Are the 20 th Century civil rights movements sustainable?
• Comparing women rights movements in 2020 and the 20 th century.
• How did Martin Luther influence the civil rights approaches that came after him?
• Comparing the scientific Revolution, Reformation and Renaissance movements’ impacts on western thought.
• Protestant Reformation: Discuss how Catholic Church’s corruption and crusaders of war contributed towards its formation.
• A closer look at the human rights movements during the Industrial Revolution of between 1760 and 1840.
• How did the teachings of the American Revolution help the secession movement and Civil War?
• How did Teddy Roosevelt impact the progressive movement?
• The impact of communism impacts world history.
• The location of a civil movement is the most important thing in its success: Discuss.
• What made people start nationalist movement in Prussia?
• Discuss the results of anti-nationalist movements in New York.
• Female and Islam oppression on the globe.
• Reinventing a revolution: A closer look at the Zapatista Movement.
• What is the link between music, protest, and justice?
• Confederate Flag: Is it a symbol of oppression?
• Review the voting rights of 1965.
• The West Memphis Three.

Special Human Rights Debate Topics

• Women rights in the first half and second half 20 th century.
• Legalization of same sex marriage and its impact on global fights for human rights.
• Human rights movements in the US and their impact on federal policies.
• International human rights movements: How has it influenced the UK judicial policies?
• Responsibility to protect: How is it related to the issue of human rights?
• Suffrage rights in ancient Greek: A holistic review.
• Human rights presentation in the philosophy of enlightenment.
• Human rights violations during the First World War.
• What are lessons did we learn from Hitler and Holocaust during WWII.
• These five reasons are the main causes of human rights violations in the 21 st century.
• The main causes of gender disparity in the US.
• Comparing the state of human rights in the UK and Qatar.
• Do you think the bible violates human rights?
• Environmental racism: What are the main effects?
• The importance of the judiciary in protecting human rights.
• Women rights in the Roman Empire.
• Segregation is a violation of human rights.
• Discussing critical human rights issues in India.

Unique Human Rights Topics for Research

• The collapse of the Soviet Union and Rise of Communism in Russia.
• Comparing the Pan-African movement to the 20 th -century cultural nationalism of Latin America.
• A review of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement’s goals and methods.
• Abolition of death penalty: Why it is a major human rights issue.
• Popularity of social media and its impact on human rights. A closer review of Arab countries in North Africa.
• International Calvinism: What was the impact on European Culture?
• Why do other countries not intervene in North Korea where massive abuses of human rights have been reported?
• A statistical review of human trafficking in the 20 th century.
• How can a person as an individual help to promote human rights?
• Utilitarianism contravenes human rights.
• Human rights institutions and their efforts in protecting human rights in Africa.
• Military actions to protect human rights: Does it make sense?
• Black Lives Matter Movement protests: What does the movement say about human rights today?
• Does the UK constitution comprehensively cover the issue of human rights?
• Global manufacturing: How has it impacted the rights of workers?
• Has the International Labor Organization done enough to protect the plight of workers on the globe?
• How does poverty impact human rights in developing countries?

PhD Topics in Human Rights

• A review of the parts of the globe with the worst cases of human rights violation.
• How does the internet promote human trafficking? A thematic review.
• A comprehensive review of factors that impact the outcome of different trials in a court of law.
• Legitimate forms of the death penalty.
• What factors prevent people from getting justice? A literature review.
• A comprehensive review of the impacts of legalizing drug use.
• What factors prevent equal representation of women in top leadership roles in the developing world?
• What are the major problems faced by LGBT couples? Propose possible solutions.
• Racial profiling by police: A case study of Mexico.
• A comparative review of human rights policies of three countries of your choice in Europe.

Other Human Rights Research Paper Topics

• LGBT relationships: Why are they disallowed in some countries?
• Comparing the rights of pets to human rights?
• A review of human rights violations during quarantines caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
• A review of the fundamental principle of the EU Commission of Human Rights.
• Human rights violations in Taiwan.
• What is the link between ecological problems and human rights problems?
• Evaluate the most frequently violated human right in your workplace.
• What is the UK policy on refugees?
• A closer review of transgender rights in Europe.
• Discuss physical abuses in marriage in the UK.
• Evaluate the amendment of laws in France to suit LGBT relationships.
• Prisoners of war: Do they deserve human rights protection?
• Discuss the strategies used by the two countries with the best human rights records.
• Comparing the human rights institutions in Africa to those in Asia.
• Violation of human rights in Crimea in 2014: Were the remedies enough?

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Since the 1960s and the origins of the modern human rights movement, human rights organizations have produced their own research.  In-depth and well-documented reports, replete with testimonial evidence and analysis of government policy and practice , are the stock-in-trade product of human rights organizations. They serve as the basis of lobbying and campaign efforts, and they provide the underpinnings of organizational reputation and credibility.

Human rights organizations invented the genre of human rights research.  It typically resembles evidence gathered for a legal argument rather than analysis in the tradition of social science. Human rights organizations do not seek to describe general social conditions; rather, the main objective of human rights reporting is to document patterns of human rights violations and expose the perpetrators, institutions and policies that facilitate abuse.

Amnesty International created prototypes for human rights reporting in the 1960s, gathering detailed information on the situation of individual prisoners of conscience and the circumstances of their incarceration.  Prisoners of conscience are people who have been jailed because of their political, religious or other conscientiously-held beliefs or factors of their identity and who have not advocated violence.  Within a year of its founding, AI had documented the “cases” of some 1200 prisoners .  In 1962 it authorized its first in-country research mission (to Ghana), and in 1965 it released its first thematic report (on prison conditions in Portugal, South Africa, and Romania).

International human rights organizations today produce as many as 100 detailed reports per year, in addition to annual reports on the human rights practices of countries and news releases published on a daily basis. Mike McClintock describes  the origins of human rights research methodology and its evolution through the 1980s.  Since that time there have been important developments in this methodology–including technological advances,  forensic analysis , and sensitivity to the handling of personal information–but the basic approach described by McClintock continues to inform research reports issued by Human Rights Watch, Human Rights First, the Fédération International des Droits de l’Homme and numerous other human rights organizations in addition to Amnesty International.  The methodology developed by human rights organizations also provides guidance for human rights monitoring under the aegis of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights .

Human rights reports typically refer to existing legal standards or, where existing standards are lacking, they point to human rights norms and the need for new laws and policy. Increasingly, human rights organizations eschew a “victims” approach in favor of more inclusive involvement of those who have suffered abuse. The Irish section of Amnesty International, for example, has created an “ experts by experience ” group to advance its work on human rights and mental health.

For more information:

Mike McClintock, who has worked in the human rights field for more than 30 years at organizations like Human Rights First, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, describes the core tenants of human rights research methodology in his narrative, The Standard Approach to Human Rights Research .

International Standards and Guidelines (from IGOs and NGOs)

• United Nations, “ Istanbul Protocol:  Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment ,” 1999.
• Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring, Professional Training . Series No. 7, 2001. (Note: Provides practical guidance principally for the conduct of human rights monitoring in United Nations field operations.)
• International Bar Association: Human Rights Institute, Guidelines on International Human Rights Fact-Finding Visits and Reports (“Lund-London Guidelines”), 1 June 2009.  (Note:  The International Bar Association’s Human Rights Institute in conjunction with the Raoul Wallenberg Institute , launched this set of human rights fact-finding guidelines during a conference at the British Institute of International and Comparative Law, London, on 1 June 2009. The guidelines are the result of several years’ work and wide consultation. They arose out of concern that, despite there being no agreed international standards for human rights fact-finding reporting, such reports are frequently referred to by courts and tribunals as evidence of the facts alleged in them, as well as by governments, NGOs and other interested people. The guidelines aim to fill this gap by setting an agreed international standard of good practice in the conduct of fact-finding visits and in the compilation of reports. More information is available on the website http://www.factfindingguidelines.org .)
• International Commission of Jurists, Trial Observation Manual-Practitioners’ Guide No. 5 , 2009. (Note: Intended as a practical tool for ICJ trial observers. The manual incorporates insights from similar guides developed by the UN and other NGOs and specifically addresses instances where the independence or impartiality of judges and lawyers is threatened or fair standards are not guaranteed. It includes analysis of international standards on the right to remedy of victims of human rights violations and combating impunity.)
• International Law Association. “The Belgrade International Rules of Procedure for International Human Rights Fact-Finding Missions,” in  American Journal of International Law 75, No. 1 (1981): 163-165.
• Human Rights Watch.  “ Our Research Methodology .”

Scholarship

On human rights research and reporting, generally.

• Franck, Thomas M. and H. Scott Fairley. “Procedural Due Process in Human Rights Fact-Finding by International Agencies.” The American Journal of International Law 74, no. 2 (1980): 308-345.
• Groome, Dermot. The Handbook of Human Rights Investigation . Human Rights Press, 2000.
• Larson, Egon. A Flame in Barbed Wire:  The Story of Amnesty International .  New York:  F. Mueller, 1978.  (Note: Includes description of research missions carried out in AI’s early years.)
• McClintock, Michael.  “Establishing Accountability for State Violence.”  In Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century:  A Global Challenge , edited by Kathleen Mahoney.  Martinus Nijhoff, 1993.
• McClintock, Michael.  “ Tensions Between Assistance and Protection:  A Human Rights Perspective .”  In Humanitarian Action:  A Transatlantic Agenda for Operations and Research , edited by Larry Minear and Thomas G. Weiss.  Occasional Paper #39, Watson Institute, Brown University, 2000.
• Orentlicher, Diane F. “Bearing Witness: The Art and Science of Human Rights Fact-Finding.” Harvard Human Rights Journal 3 (1990): 83-135.
• Weissbrodt, David and James McCarthy. “Fact-finding by International Non-governmental Human Rights Organizations.” Virginia Journal of International Law , 22 (1981).
• Weissbrodt, David.  “Book Review.  Human Rights Missions: A Study of the Fact-Finding Practice of Non-Governmental Organizations by Hans Thoolen and Berth Verstappen.”   Human Rights Quarterly , Vol. 10, No. 1 (Feb., 1988):  134-137. (Note: Introduces volume by Thoolen and Verstappen and also provides brief literature review on human rights research methodology.)

On specific methodologies

• Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture, and University of York: Center for Applied Human Rights. “ Active Participation in Human Rights ,” Conference Report, 2011. (Note: See Annex 1 for an overview of conceptual challenges in incorporating rights holder perspectives and priorities in human rights research and reporting.)
• OSCE.   Preventing and Responding to Hate Crimes:  A Resource Guide for NGOs in the OSCE Region ,”  Includes section on data collection, monitoring and reporting.  2009.
• Stover, Eric. The Witnesses: War Crimes and the Promise of Justice in the Hague .  University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005. (Note: Addresses the use of victim and survivor testimony.)
• Weissbrodt, David.  “International Trial Observers.”  Stanford Journal of International Law 18 (1982):  27-121.

Case Studies and Examples

• Dublin City University, “ Hear My Voice:  The Experience of Discrimination of People with Mental Health Problems in Ireland ,” 2010.  (Commissioned by AI-Ireland, investigation of the experience of discrimination by people with mental health problems, experts by experience.  Illustrates use of “active participation” methodology.)
• Geiger, MD., H. Jack and Robert M. Cook-Deegan, MD. “The Role of Physicians in Conflicts and Humanitarian Crises: Case Studies from the Field Missions of Physicians for Human Rights, 1988 to 1993.” Journal of the American Medical Association 270, no. 5 (1993): 616-620.
• “ I Remember Being Shown Some Very Severe Signs of Torture ,” Former staff researchers of Amnesty International reminisce about gathering information in Pinochet’s Chile (blogpost, August 14, 2013).
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Article contents

What helps protect human rights: human rights theory and evidence.

• Jessica Anderson Jessica Anderson Department of Political Science, University of Missouri
• , and  Amanda Murdie Amanda Murdie Department of International Affairs, University of Georgia
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.513
• Published online: 24 May 2017

Empirical international relations (IR) theory developed three generalized statements regarding why human rights abuses occur. First, human rights abuses are a way for an unrestrained state, especially the executive branch and its agents, to try to control individuals and hold on to power. Second, respect for human rights is an international norm, and international socialization and pressure about this norm can, in certain situations, affect behavior. Third, the codification of human rights norms into international treaties may influence behavior but, similar to our understanding of the effect of other treaties on state behavior, states only bind themselves weakly, and certain conditions are necessary for treaties to affect human rights.

• Human rights
• norm life cycle
• human rights treaties
• international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs)
• empirical international relations theory

Introduction

Amnesty International, a leading organization specializing in advocacy to end human rights abuses, recently released accounts of horrendous abuses to political prisoners in Vietnam (Amnesty International, 2016 ). Peaceful demonstrators and outspoken minorities had been imprisoned, tortured, and “disappeared” for their beliefs and the supposed threat that they posed to the regime. Even though Vietnam ratified the United Nation’s Convention Against Torture (CAT) in 2015 , dozens of individuals are still imprisoned and tortured there for the peaceful expression of their political beliefs.

Since the end of World War II, much attention has been paid to stopping abuses like those that occurred in Vietnam. Global and regional human rights treaties have been ratified, and concerns about human rights abuses have sparked many foreign policy actions. A vibrant and connected network of human rights advocates and organizations has fought tirelessly for the abused and have expanded our understanding of what human rights means and what protections should be expected. Despite all of this, most countries in the world still have evidence of abuses within their borders.

This article examines why human rights abuse occurs and what can be done to help protect human rights. In the last 30 years, there has been an explosion of human rights–related scholarship in leading international relations (IR) journals (Murdie, 2015 ). This literature has drawn on many theoretical traditions and paradigms and has enriched both the general IR literature and more human rights–specific scholarship.

We do not attempt to review all the international relations literature on human rights abuses; other scholars have recently produced very thorough reviews of the extant literature (Davenport, 2007 ; Goodman, Jinks, & Woods, 2012 ; Hafner-Burton & Ron, 2009 ; Hafner-Burton, 2012 , 2014 Landman, 2005 ; Morgan, 2009 ; ). Instead, this article attempts to review some of the human rights empirical literature in international relations and situate this literature into a set of general theoretical statements about why human rights abuses occur. We hope that this exercise will help in improving and expanding empirical IR theory related to this topic.

In general, IR scholars have made three large-scale theoretical statements:

Human rights abuses are a way for an unrestrained state, especially the executive branch and its agents, to try to control individuals and hold on to power.

Respect for human rights is an international norm, and international socialization and pressure about this norm can affect behavior in certain situations.

The codification of human rights norms into international treaties may influence behavior but, similar to our understanding of the effect of other treaties on state behavior, states only bind themselves weakly, and certain conditions are necessary for treaties to affect human rights.

After defining human rights in more detail, we outline the empirical literature that supports these theoretical statements. To note, however, human rights research is not confined to IR or political science; rather, it is also examined through the fields of sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and law (Morgan, 2009 ). Thus, the study of human rights is an interdisciplinary study in a way that most fields within international relations are not. Within political science, human rights research reaches across the boundary between international relations and comparative politics. Full understanding of human rights situations requires understanding the domestic factors and characteristics of bureaucracies more commonly discussed in research within the comparative politics subfield. At the same time, attempts to limit or prevent human rights often involve the international community in the drafting of treaties, the foreign policy between states, and the flow of global norms about human rights practices. Thus, understanding why human rights abuses occur requires understanding the elements of both comparative politics and international relations. We see this as an advantage in the study of human rights. IR scholars can utilize theories from comparative politics and disciplines outside of political science to create a more complete understanding of human rights situations and produce research that speaks to a broad audience of scholars and individuals outside the academic world.

What Are Human Rights?

Much of our current understanding of human rights is based on international law, especially on the conception of rights included within the United Nation’s nonbinding Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948 . This document creates a list of what is now commonly accepted as individual rights, including political rights; civil rights; social, economic, and cultural rights; and more broadly conceptualized rights of development and freedom from poverty, which also fit under the umbrella term of human rights (Landman, 2006 ).

The Emphasis on Physical Integrity Rights

The UDHR specifies the rights of individuals in 30 separate articles, addressing a range of rights from the “right to life, liberty, and security of person” (art. 3) to “the right to rest and leisure” (art. 23). Our collective understanding of which rights are included as human rights has expanded over time. Recently, advocacy related to human rights has included rights related to access to the Internet and sexual minority rights [i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) rights], among others.

Although the concept of human rights includes a wide range of rights, much of the research on human rights within IR focuses on a very narrow set of rights, often referred to as physical integrity or bodily integrity rights . In addition, most of the focus within international relations has focused specifically on abuses of these rights on citizens of a specific state by governmental actors from this state. Abuses by fellow citizens or nonstate actors, like corporations or rebel movements, have often been ignored. 1 Similarly, abuses by government actors beyond their own state borders have also received little attention in the IR scholarship, despite horrific accounts of abuses by military interveners and peacekeepers, among others.

Physical integrity rights are conceptualized as “freedom from” rights, and they typically include being free from extrajudicial killing, the use of torture, political imprisonment, and disappearance. To respect these rights, governments need only restrain from violating them; hence, they are sometimes called negative rights . On the other hand, in order to respect positive rights , like the right to education or the right to health, the state must provide resources or services. The study of these positive rights has primarily been done by political economists, often without a human rights frame. It is worth noting, however, that there is a growing number of IR studies on rights beyond physical integrity rights, like women’s rights and labor rights (e.g., Detraz & Peksen, 2016 ; Peksen & Blanton, 2017 ). This expansion of the types of rights examined by IR scholars holds great promise for a more encompassing theory of human rights practices and for additional inquiry into why some states may perform well on certain rights, but not on others.

Many human rights scholars rely on a small number of quantitative measures to capture physical integrity rights practices. One of the most prominent is the CIRI Physical Integrity Rights Index (Cingranelli, Richards, & Clay, 2014 ). This composite measure captures observable state practices regarding the use of torture, extrajudicial killings, disappearances, and political imprisonment during a given year (Cingranelli & Richards, 2010 ). The Political Terror Scale (PTS) is a similar measure that is widely used (Wood & Gibney, 2010 ). Both of these measures are created by using information from yearly reports released by the U.S. State Department and Amnesty International. The use of such measures makes it much easier to conduct empirical analyses across a global sample of states for a long period of time. However, it is important to remember that these measures capture only a small range of human rights practices. Although this is a limitation, current research has allowed scholars to understand many of the reasons why states abuse these physical integrity rights and propose solutions to prevent abuses. Similarly, these measures may not account for the changing standard of accountability over time, leading scholars to conclude (erroneously) that there have been no improvements in state practices over time (Fariss, 2014 ). 2

Human Rights Abuses and the State

One of the most common assumptions in international relations and comparative politics concerns the desire of a regime leader to remain in power (Bueno de Mesquita, Smith, Siverson, & Morrow, 2003 ; Chiozza & Goemans, 2004 ). A leader makes calculated decisions to remain in power or to ensure that his or her political party does. Human rights abuses are one “tool” that leaders can use to try to hold on to political power. If a regime is threatened, a leader can use his or her control of security forces to violate the human rights of citizens within the state. Abuses are designed to increase the cost that a possible dissident would face for violently (or even nonviolently) challenging the leader, hopefully cutting off dissent before it occurs (Ritter & Conrad, 2016 ). Davenport ( 2007 , p. 7) calls this the “law of coercive responsiveness.” In general, the law leads us to expect to see repression increase as opposition to the regime leadership increases within a state, and to expect to see repression increase as the regime faces threats to its power from abroad, especially in cases involving international war. States engaged in international war must respond to these external threats and any internal threats at the same time, constraining the resources available to the state. This means that even states that otherwise may have granted concessions to citizens will be more likely to respond to their demands with repression while engaged in international conflict due to the need to commit resources to facing international foes (Rasler, 1986 ). In general, this logic explains why there is such a strong empirical link between international and civil war and repression; when a state is threatened militarily, a government will respond with repression in order to control the population, try to extract information from that population that could help it remain in power, or both (Poe & Tate, 1994 ).

Given that the law of coercive responsiveness would lead us to expect an increase in repression whenever a leader is threatened, perhaps the question is not so much why states abuse human rights as it is why some states abuse the human rights of their citizens more than other states. Abuses are a common response by a threatened leader who has the power to control security forces. It is with this thought in mind that we now turn to a variety of state characteristics that are associated with differences in human rights performance and reflect this underlying theoretical logic.

Regime Type

It has long been suggested that democratic regimes are associated with better human rights, and this suggestion has received a great deal of empirical support. There are a number of explanations for why democracies might have greater respect for human rights. First, democracies allow the peaceful turnover of power. The political institutions of a democratic government are composed of citizens, and they are approved by citizens through the process of voting. Elections provide citizens with a legitimate channel through which to remove leaders from power without resorting to political violence (Davenport, 1999 ). When leaders regularly face the possibility of being removed from power by their constituents, they are more beholden to their constituents’ wishes. This will force leaders to show greater respect for human rights because there is a regular risk of being removed from office if citizens are unhappy with their leadership and their use of repression.

However, not all democratic regimes are equal (Bueno de Mesquita et al., 2005 ). Simply holding an election does not necessarily make a state a democracy. If elections are not free and fair, then they fail to hold leaders accountable or to convey the grievances of the population to the regime’s leadership. Only when elections are free and fair with more than one choice do they force leaders to be accountable to their citizens and potentially limit human rights abuses. Further, there is much research questioning whether elections alone are enough to affect human rights practices (Cingranelli & Filippov, 2010 ; Davenport, 1997 ; Richards, 1999 ; ). Richards and Gelleny ( 2007 ), for example, find that national legislative elections improve human rights only in the year following the election. Presidential elections are associated with less respect for human rights, something that Richard and Gelleny ( 2007 , p. 520) claim is linked to the “rigidity and winner-take-all structure of many presidential systems.”

Elections are only one aspect of democracies that has been potentially linked to better human rights practices. Institutional constraints and channels of regularized communication also matter. Democracy is often conceptualized not only by free elections, but also by constraints on an executive’s power. As Hafner-Burton, Hyde, and Jablonski ( 2012 ) show, an unconstrained leader may be more likely to use violence around an election. Judicial constraints have been found to limit the use of torture; although these same constraints may make leaders less likely to ratify the CAT (Powell & Staton, 2009 ). Conrad and Moore ( 2010 ), however, conclude that institutions that constrain executives, such as freedom of expression or institutional checks, may not be enough to stop torture when a regime is threatened. Recent work has highlighted how the creation of national human rights ombudsmen or institutional offices can constrain executives by providing a regularzed way for abuses to be publicized and adjudicated (Smith, 2006 ; Welch, 2017 ).

Democracies have more channels for communication and compromise between regime leaders and the opposition than do autocracies, meaning that there are usually more available alternatives to repression that would still limit the possibility of threat to the leadership (Henderson, 1991 ). Political opposition is theorized to develop through grievances from citizens who feel that they are receiving less than they expect and that the government is responsible for their plight (Gurr, 1968 ). In democracies, citizens have more institutionalized channels through which to get their grievances heard by the regime. Citizens in democracies are also much more likely to have their demands met, as leaders in democracies that do not address such grievances are unlikely to stay in office. Citizens in autocracies may demand greater participation in decision-making, greater freedom in criticizing leadership, or pressure for more transparent government, but these calls for reform are unlikely to be met, as that would require autocratic leaders to relinquish power. Further, autocracies draw their power from a very small group of political elites and must provide private goods to these elites in order to stay in power. Democratic leaders have a greater incentive to pursue policies that benefit large segments of society, as they need the political support of a much larger group (Bueno de Mesquita et al., 2003 ). As demands are less likely to be met though concessions in autocracies, political opposition is more likely to be handled with repression (Davis & Ward, 1990 ).

When opposition threatens the power of autocratic leaders, who may not depend at all on winning the votes of members of the opposition, they will likely use repression in an attempt to silence this opposition; this was part of what Davenport ( 2007 , p. 7) calls the “law of coercive responsiveness.” However, as he continues, there is a “puzzle” (p. 8) about whether the abuse will actually limit dissent: even though leaders utilize repression to coerce political opposition into submission, these actions can paradoxically incite further opposition. This reveals an endogenous relationship between protest and repression that is found in many autocratic states. Political opposition feeds into higher degrees of repression, which increases political opposition, leading the cycle to repeat (Pierskalla, 2010 ; Rasler, 1996 ; Ritter, 2014 ; Thoms & Ron, 2007 ). Repression also increases the grievances formed by citizens, possibly causing them to engage in more violent forms of opposition. When repression against citizens is severe, it can lead to terrorism against the state and even full-fledged civil war (Bell, Cingranelli, Murdie, & Caglayan, 2013 ; Thoms & Ron, 2007 ). In response, the government will utilize more severe forms of repression in an attempt to quash the rebellion, continuing until either the opposition is completely eradicated or the government is forced from power.

Another argument for the empirical connection between democracy and better human rights performance centers on the norms and expectations of behavior in democratic regimes. Democratic regimes have strong norms of nonviolence; these norms could influence how leaders in democratic regimes use violence, both domestically and internationally (Hegre, 2001 ; Maoz & Russett, 1993 ; Risse-Kappen, 1995 ). Research also suggests that better human rights practices domestically may create norms of engagement that limit international conflict (Caprioli & Trumbore, 2003 , 2006 ; Peterson & Graham, 2011 ; Sobek, Abouharb, & Ingram, 2006 ; Tomz & Weeks, 2016 ).

Although there are many empirical theories about the relationship between democracy and human rights practices, extant research suggests a few important caveats. First, this relationship is not necessarily linear. Scholars have noted that complete autocracies—those that we would expect to exercise the most political repression—tend to exercise relatively little repression (Davenport & Armstrong, 2004 ; Fein, 1995 ). Fein ( 1995 , p. 170) argues that there is “more murder in the middle,” in that there is a U-shaped relationship between regime type and repression, suggesting that states that are neither strong democracies nor strong autocracies have the greatest likelihood to use repression. Davenport and Armstrong ( 2004 ) point out, however, that it is more of a threshold relationship, with only consolidated democracies limiting repression.

Second, just as not all democracies are equal in their human rights performance, there also are differences between authoritarian regimes. Vreeland ( 2008 ) finds that dictatorships with multiple political parties, indicative of shared power, are more likely to both commit torture and ratify the CAT. Vreeland ( 2008 ) argues that this is due to how shared power emboldens potential dissidents, creating opportunities for torture, but also likely leading to concessions like treaty ratification. Conrad ( 2011 ) finds, however, that effective judiciaries can constrain dictators in their use of torture.

Finally, it is important to acknowledge that democracy and human rights, especially the physical integrity rights most typically studied by IR scholars, are conceptually related. Hill ( 2016 ) argues that some definitions of democracy include freedom from repression as a key component, cautioning scholars to be careful about their definition of democracy and that this definition is conceptually distinct from physical integrity rights performance.

State Wealth

Beyond regime type, one of the most consistent findings within the literature on human rights suggests that wealthy states abuse human rights less often than poor states. 3 However, scholars have disagreed on exactly why economic development is associated with better protection of human rights. First, wealthy states might have less need to use repression. As Henderson ( 1991 ) states, we expect to see fewer grievances in wealthy states, since citizens should be more satisfied with their standard of living. As discussed previously, repression is often used as a response to opposition, making it unnecessary when opposition is lacking. Also, wealthier states have a greater ability to grant concessions to citizens in the form of goods and services rather than resorting to repression (Conrad, 2011 ; Davenport, 2007 ). Thus, wealthier states should see less political opposition and also have means of dealing with opposition other than resorting to repression.

Economic development, especially development tied to globalization, is also linked to changes in the way that society is structured within a state, which can affect human rights practices. Richards, Gelleny, and Sacko ( 2001 ) discuss the two main schools that provide expectations about the relation between globalized economic development and human rights practices, referred to as the liberal neoclassical and dependency schools. The liberal neoclassical school suggests that a globalized economy will lead to enhanced wealth across a society, leading to the creation of a middle class. When the middle class develops greater wealth, they are able to devote more time and resources to their demands against the state. This access to greater resources is necessary for a social opposition movement to succeed (Zald & McCarthy, 1987 ). While this increase in the strength of opposition may initially lead to enhanced use of repression, eventually the government will be unable to effectively quash opposition that is well funded and supported throughout society. Thus, grievances in countries that are amassing wealth are more likely to be addressed by governments, and human rights behavior is more likely to improve.

The second main school that links a globalized economy and human rights practices is the dependency school, which argues that poor states often do not evenly distribute the gains from globalization to the general population, instead concentrating increased wealth in the hands of political elites. This allows these elites to expand their use of repression as a response to political opposition, increasing human rights violations. In addition, by increasing the wealth of only the elites, those living in poverty develop stronger grievances about their deprivation, leading to more low-level opposition as a response, followed by more repression (Davenport, 2007 ).

Dependency theory is a particularly powerful tool in explaining the human rights records of states that draw their wealth from natural resources such as oil (DeMeritt & Young, 2013 ). Oil is extremely expensive to extricate, meaning that the ability to control oilfields is limited to those with substantial economic and human resources. This, coupled with the tremendous wealth that can be gained from the sale of oil, provides a unique opportunity for governments in such states to greatly enhance the wealth of a small group of political elites. Research supports dependency theory in oil-rich states, showing that such states have significantly higher levels of human rights abuses than poor states that do not have oil wealth (DeMeritt & Young, 2013 ).

These two schools may seem contradictory, but they can be understood as being complementary to each other. The liberal neoclassical school holds that economic development leads to the formation of a middle class, but this middle class cannot form in states where wealth is isolated in the hands of the elite. Only when wealth is distributed across society and can lead to the development of a middle class will we see opposition movements that are powerful enough to effectively demand changes in human rights practices.

State Capacity

There are many similarities between theories of state wealth and human rights and those of state capacity and human rights. State capacity can be thought of as the centralized power within a state, and weak states are characterized by a lack of centralized power. Englehart ( 2009 ) describes weak states as those with low ability to collect taxes, high corruption, and/or a lack of law and order. Some scholars have captured state capacity with indicators of economic development, implying that wealthy states are more capable than others (Hendrix, 2010 ).

Many scholars have found that capable states are less likely to abuse physical integrity rights (Englehart, 2009 ; Cole, 2015 ; Young, 2009 ). State capacity is necessary to be able to monitor the behavior of security forces and other government agents. Human rights abuses can occur not because they were authorized by the regime leadership, but because state agents are not trained and/or monitored. Without training and monitoring, human rights abuses often occur as part of control or interrogation tactics (Muñoz, 2009 ). A capable state can limit these unauthorized abuses, limiting the overall levels of human rights abuses within the state.

The relationship between the state and its agents can be understood through principal-agent theory, in which the state acts as the principal and holds the authority to command security agents (Englehart, 2009 ). However, agents do not necessarily follow the commands of the principal. Weak states lack the ability to provide oversight of state agents, making them more independent. This can make it difficult for weak states to change human rights practices, even when they have a desire to do so. As Cole ( 2015 ) explains, many states that sign human rights treaties have the desire to improve practices but lack the ability to enforce new standards among state agents. This highlights the idea that human rights abuses are not always state-sanctioned; in fact, they often directly contradict state policy.

State capacity also affects the perceived need to resort to repression. Strong state capacity can prevent political dissatisfaction from erupting into violent political unrest. Weak states (those with an unstable hold on state power) are inherently more threatened by opposition and will thus resort to more resorting to human rights abuses to control the population (Young, 2009 ). Limited state capacity is also tied to the emergence of violent rebel groups (Fearon & Laitin, 2003 ). This makes weak states more susceptible to civil war, and civil war is linked to increases in human rights violations by the state (Poe & Tate, 1994 ).

Human Rights and International Dynamics

In the previous section, we examined how characteristics of the state (namely, its regime type, its economic wealth, and its capacity) matter for its human rights performance. The basic insight from this research is that human rights abuses occur as a mechanism of population control when a regime or its agents are unrestrained by domestic institutions, an organized and developed domestic opposition, or both. However, human rights concerns are not a wholly domestic matter. The rights outlined in the UDHR were the result of international collaboration and joint advocacy efforts. They fit the classic definition of a norm: a “standard of appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity” (Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998 , p. 889). The protection of human rights norms since the UDHR’s crafting has been heavily influenced by international dynamics and actors. Foreign policy actions of states, transnational organizations of all stripes, and the involvement of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) can pressure and socialize states to adopt human rights norms. However, these actions can also backfire, leading to an often-unintended worsening of human rights conditions. We explore these dynamics next.

Norm Entrepreneurs and Advocacy Actors

The adoption of human rights language and the internalization of human rights ideals are the results of a process of normative development and diffusion. Both in the case of now well-accepted norms (like bodily integrity rights) and in the case of newer and developing norms (like sexual minority rights or the right to development), norm entrepreneurs help in articulating and spreading these human rights ideas. According to Finnemore and Sikkink’s ( 1998 ) theory of the norm life cycle, these entrepreneurs work to get sympathetic regime leaders and other key constituents to adopt a norm as a general expectation of behavior. This larger group then helps in codifying and socializing other state actors about the norm. Finnemore and Sikkink ( 1998 , p. 900) see IGOs as important at this stage; the norm is “institutionalized in international rules.” If a critical mass of supporters is reached, often requiring the support of key states, a tipping point occurs, where the norm cascades and additional state and nonstate actors are socialized to adopt the norm.

It is at this stage in the norm socialization process where international actors often use a host of techniques and tactics to try to pressure governments to change their behavior. Advocates can point out that “legitimate” states do not abuse human rights (Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998 , p. 902). Material and nonmaterial carrots and sticks can be used to pressure a state to change its behavior. In some situations, this process of socialization can lead to the state “internalizing” the norm, giving it “taken-for-granted” status (Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998 , p. 904).

Although Finnemore and Sikkink ( 1998 )’s theory of the norm life cycle is often not explicitly mentioned in current empirical work on how international actors influence domestic human rights practices, it aptly applies. International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), like Human Rights Watch or Amnesty International, are often critical actors at the early stages of the life cycle. They help in spreading or educating local populations about a norm, as well as being crucial to getting the norm on the international agenda. Once key states have adopted the norm and it has been institutionalized, INGOs work to bring abuses to the attention of sympathetic states and advocates. The media attention that INGOs bring to abusive regimes, often termed “shaming and blaming” or “naming and shaming” by scholars, can be key to getting third-party states and INGOs to start pressuring the country to change their human rights practices.

INGOs can also help heighten domestic pressure on the regime. This combination of domestic and international pressure is what Keck and Sikkink ( 1998 ) term a transnational advocacy network . Later work by Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink ( 1999 , 2013 ) further laid out the iterative process through which advocates work to socialize states about human rights; this process was named the spiral model . In this model, if international pressure is concentrated on an abusive regime, “tactical concessions” can be made by the abusive regime, leading to some limited and short-term improvements in human rights practices and, perhaps, the adoption of human rights laws (Risse & Sikkink 1999 , p. 12). If pressure continues, these concessions can turn into internalized human rights norms, completing the norm life cycle.

In line with these theoretical arguments, human rights INGOs have been linked to changes in human rights opinions and mobilization (Ausderan, 2014 ; Davis, Murdie, & Steinmetz, 2012 ; McEntire, Leiby, & Krain, 2015 ; Murdie & Bhasin, 2011 ). Their “naming and shaming” activities have also been linked to many forms of international pressure and involvement, including humanitarian intervention (Murdie & Peksen, 2013a ), international sanctions (Murdie & Peksen, 2013b ), drops in foreign direct investment (Barry, Clay, & Flynn, 2013 ), trade (Peterson, Murdie, & Asal, 2017 ), and the bypassing of foreign aid (Dietrich & Murdie, 2017 ). Some studies have found direct links between shaming by human rights INGOs and drops in certain human rights abuses (DeMeritt, 2012 ; Krain, 2012 ; Murdie, 2014 ), although this relationship has also been found to be conditional on domestic and/or international mobilization (Murdie & Davis, 2012 ) and domestic regime type (Hendrix & Wong, 2013 ; Murdie, 2014 ).

Worth mentioning, there are concerns that shaming of one type of abuse by human rights INGOs and IGOs could lead states to change their abusive tactics (DeMeritt, Conrad, & Fariss, 2016 ; Hafner-Burton, 2008 ). Further, there is work that is highly critical of certain behaviors of INGOs, highlighting the negative consequences of their often-overlooked, nonprincipled behavior (Clifford, 2005 ; Cooley & Ron, 2002 ; Murdie, 2014 ). Further work is necessary to understand the conditions when INGOs and other advocates are most likely to be successful and when they are likely to be ineffective or counterproductive to human rights goals.

State and IGO Foreign Policy Actions

There is a growing body of empirical work that looks at whether certain foreign policy actions improve human rights in a targeted state. Although this work does occasionally find that international actions can improve certain human rights practices, there is much work that shows that some international pressure tactics are counterproductive to human rights goals. To the extent that these actions are encouraged or influenced by human rights advocates, this could diminish the overall effects of advocates on human rights practices (Allendoerfer & Murdie, 2015 ).

On the positive side, there is some research that finds that certain types of foreign military interventions can improve certain human rights practices. For example, Krain ( 2005 ) finds that foreign military interventions against the perpetrator can help limit the severity of mass killings. DeMeritt ( 2015 ) concludes that interventions in support of the government can limit the onset of mass killings. Murdie and Davis ( 2010 ) find that only peacekeeping interventions with a strong humanitarian focus can improve human rights in countries after civil wars. However, Peksen ( 2012 ) finds that foreign military interventions do not generally improve human rights.

Another potential positive international action for human rights improvement is the support that international actors provide for transitional justice mechanisms, like the use of truth commissions after civil wars or human rights atrocities. Many studies have found that these mechanisms, especially in certain combinations, can improve some human rights outcomes, even after accounting for the factors that led to the implementation of these mechanisms in the first place (Dancy & Wiebelhaus-Brahm, 2015 ; Kim & Sikkink, 2010 ; Olsen, Payne, & Reiter, 2010 ; Polizzi, 2016 ).

On the negative side, however, there are many international foreign policy actions that are not associated with improved human rights. Foreign aid is not often associated with improved human rights (Barratt, 2007 ) and repressive regimes are rarely punished for poor human rights records (Esarey & DeMeritt, 2016 ; Nielsen, 2013 ). Economic sanctions can exasperate human rights abuses (Peksen, 2009 ; Wood, 2008 ). Actions by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank often harm human rights (Abouharb & Cingranelli, 2007 ). Most of this work explains the negative or null findings as the unintended consequences of international foreign policy action. These actions can limit the general public’s ability or willingness to pressure their leaders and can make abusive leaders feel threatened, heightening their desire to use repressive practices to stay in power. Another important issue in this research concerns the selection of states to receive international action and the geopolitical concerns that can complicate whether these actions are designed with human rights goals.

In short, there is a well-established theoretical lens through which to examine how international actors influence the adoption and internalization of human rights norms. Although much current empirical work has shown that advocacy actors (particularly human rights INGOs) do influence human rights outcomes in the ways outlined in the extant theoretical literature, there is much work to be done to understand the types of international foreign policy pressure that can stop human rights abuses.

Human Rights Treaties

The previous section on how international pressure is associated with human rights practices ignores an important international pressure source: international human rights law. This was intentional; the international human rights treaty regime is a very specific type of international pressure that does not nicely conform to the theoretical and empirical literature concerning many of the international foreign policy actions discussed earlier in this article. Instead, the study of how the international human rights treaty regime influences human rights practices has drawn heavily on earlier theoretical arguments on international cooperation and compliance ( Abbott, Keohane, Moravcsik, Slaughter, & Snidal, 2000 ; Downs, Rocke, & Barsoom, 1996 ; Morrow, 1994 ; von Stein, 2005 ) and the role of domestic institutions in encouraging compliance with international agreements (Dai, 2005 ).

Although much of the work within this area has focused on the human rights treaties drafted within the United Nations (UN) that followed the UDHR, like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) or the CAT, which we refer to here as UN human rights treaties , there is also a rich literature on regional human rights treaties and courts (Hawkins & Jacoby, 2010 ; Helfer & Voeten, 2014 ; Hillebrecht, 2012 ; Tallberg, 2002 ), as well as a growing literature on the International Criminal Court (Chapman & Chaudoin, 2013 ; Ritter & Wolford, 2012 ). Due to space constraints, the discussion here focuses on the literature concerning UN human rights treaties, where there has recently been a surge of empirical work concerning whether treaty ratification affects human rights practices.

Many early empirical works argued and found that various UN international human rights treaties are not generally associated with unconditional improvements in various human rights practices (Hafner-Burton & Tsutsui, 2005 ; Hathaway, 2002 ; Keith, 1999 ). As such, there was much early evidence that UN human rights treaties alone were not sufficient to lead to greater respect for human rights. In line with general arguments on the limits of international cooperation, the existing treaty system was created with weak enforcement mechanisms and states are unlikely to voluntarily bind themselves in ways that would limit their ability to control their populations. There are tremendous issues of self-selection as well: states may be ratifying treaties after a war or as part of their transition to democracy. As such, it is difficult to ascertain whether any improvements in human rights practices are causally linked to the treaty or are linked to the underlying conditions that led the state to ratify the treaty in the first place.

Much of the scholarship that followed has (a) taken issues of self-selection seriously, (b) examined the domestic conditions that could make treaties more likely to affect human rights practices (Conrad & Ritter, 2013 ; Hill, 2010 ; Lupu, 2013 ; Neumayer, 2005 ; Simmons, 2009 ), or both. As to the first issue, many studies are using advanced statistical treatment effects or “matching” techniques to account for the underlying self-selection issue. Some of these studies have found that certain treaties cause improvements in certain human rights, and explanations have been given for these unique causal effects. For example, Hill ( 2010 ) finds that the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) causes better human rights performance on women’s political rights, something Hill ( 2010 ) explains is due to the nonthreatening nature of women’s political rights to the regime leadership. Lupu ( 2013 ) uses a slightly different method to account for self-selection and finds that CEDAW causes improved women’s political, social, and economic rights.

The newer literature has also found that treaties can be effective in some situations. In line with the spiral model outlined previously, Neumayer ( 2005 ) finds, for example, that treaties are associated with improved human rights in democratic regimes and where there are large numbers of INGOs with members present within the state. Similarly, Simmons ( 2009 ) finds that treaties can be a useful tool for dissidents to use to try to get concessions from a repressive regime. And, as mentioned, Powell and Staton ( 2009 ) highlight the utility of an independent judiciary in leading states where the CAT is ratified to lessen their use of torture. Recent work by Conrad and Ritter ( 2013 ) connects the effectiveness of treaties to the characteristics of the judiciary and the security of the leader.

Although these findings provide a small glimmer of hope for the usefulness of the international human rights regime in certain situations, Fariss ( 2014 ) argues that there may be more reasons to be hopeful. As mentioned, Fariss ( 2014 ) contends that there is a changing standard of accountability for physical integrity rights abuses over time. Using his corrected measure, Fariss ( 2014 , 2017a ) shows a general association between treaty ratification and improved human rights practices. Cingranelli and Filippov ( 2017 ), however, question the empirical validity of this finding, arguing that the Fariss ( 2014 ) results are time dependent. Nonetheless, future work should examine how changing standards of accountability (some changing standards perhaps even aided by the human rights regime) affect the relationship between treaty ratification and human rights practices.

Why do state actors abuse human rights? In this article, we outlined three stylized theoretical statements that are supported in the empirical literature:

Respect for human rights is an international norm, and international socialization and pressure about this norm can, in certain situations, affect behavior.

The codification of human rights norms into international treaties may influence behavior but, like our understanding of the effect of other treaties on state behavior, states only bind themselves weakly and certain conditions are necessary for treaties to affect human rights.

This is an especially great juncture in the study of human rights. First, more detailed and rich data are now available; this data will allow future scholars to examine rights beyond the conventional focus on physical integrity violations by state actors and allow much more nuance in the particularities of the abuse and the abuser (e.g., Conrad, Haglund, & Moore, 2014 ; Cornett, Gibney, & Haschke, 2016 ). In addition, automated events data also hold much promise for near real-time analysis and for more nuanced study of the state-society dynamics that exasperate human rights abuses (Boschee et al., 2015 ; Fariss et al., 2015 ; Quinn, Monroe, Colaresi, Crespin, & Radev, 2010 ). The combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques also will continue to contribute to the breadth and depth of our knowledge on why abuses occur (Hafner-Burton & Ron, 2009 ).

Second, advances in empirical techniques now allow scholars to take self-selection seriously and examine more directly the causal process connecting certain interventions and institutions to changes in human rights outcomes (Allendoerfer & Murdie, 2015 ; Hill, 2010 ; Lupu, 2013 ; Murdie & Peksen, 2013b ). These techniques will help us determine how certain actions could mediate the effects of advocacy, or perhaps lead to unintended consequences that could harm human rights.

Third, a growing number of scholars are focusing on public opinion related to human rights (Ausderan, 2014 ; Bracic, 2016 ; Murdie & Purser, 2017 ; Ron, Golden, Crow, & Pandya, 2017 ; Wallace, 2013 ). Although these studies have not yet been extended to focusing on how public opinion relates to human rights outcomes in a cross-national sample of states, work is this area is critical for building our microfoundations for how human rights improvements occur and the potential role of public opinion in this process.

Finally, there have been recent advances in the practice of human rights promotion and the strategies of human rights advocates. Human rights performance within a country could be influenced by current increases in training on nonviolent resistance, a renewed focus on transitional justice and nonstate actors, and the use of technology to aid in the recording of abuses. Future studies should incorporate these advances into our theoretical understanding of the process by which human rights improve. The efficacy of these tactics should also be tested empirically.

In sum, the existing IR literature on why states abuse human rights has highlighted the nuanced relationships between international and domestic factors and human rights practices. There are few laws in human rights theories, but the works discussed in this article do point to a general theory of why states abuse human rights. The literature draws heavily on theories related to domestic constraints on leaders, on how norms diffuse, and on when international agreements affect state behavior. By drawing on this generalized set of knowledge, as well as current advances in the field, future work holds much potential to contribute to both our scholarly understanding of human rights practices and the growing practice of human rights advocacy outside academia.

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• Murdie, A. , & Peksen, D. (2013a). The impact of human rights INGO activities on economic sanctions. Review of International Organizations , 8 (1), 33–53.
• Murdie, A. , & Peksen, D. (2013b). The impact of human rights INGO shaming on humanitarian interventions. Journal of Politics , 76 (1), 215–228.
• Murdie, A. , & Purser, C. (2017). How protest affects opinions of peaceful demonstration and expression rights. Journal of Human Rights .
• Murdie, A. M. , & Davis, D. R. (2012). Shaming and blaming: Using events data to assess the impact of human rights INGOs. International Studies Quarterly , 56 (1), 1–16.
• Neumayer, E. (2005). Do international human rights treaties improve respect for human rights? Journal of Conflict Resolution , 49 (6), 925–953.
• Nielsen, R. A. (2013). Rewarding human rights? Selective aid sanctions against repressive states. International Studies Quarterly , 57 (4), 791–803.
• Olsen, T. D. , Payne, L. A. , & Reiter, A. G. (2010). The justice balance: When transitional justice improves human rights and democracy. Human Rights Quarterly , 32 (4), 980–1007.
• Peksen, D. (2009). Better or worse? The effect of economic sanctions on human rights. Journal of Peace Research , 46 (1), 59–77.
• Peksen, D. (2012). Does foreign military intervention help human rights? Political Research Quarterly , 65 (3), 558–571.
• Peksen, D. , & Blanton, R. G. (2017). The impact of ILO conventions on worker rights: Are empty promises worse than no promises? Review of International Organizations , 12 (1), 75–94.
• Peterson, T. M. , & Graham, L. (2011). Shared human rights norms and military conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution , 55 (2), 248–273.
• Peterson, T. M. , Murdie, A. , & Asal, V. (2017). Human rights, NGO shaming, and the exports of abusive states. British Journal of Political Science .
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1. Recently, principal investigators of the Political Terror Scale (PTS) have introduced a new measure of violence by nonstate actors: the Societal Violence Scale (SVS). As the authors of this scale remark in their explanation of the scale, the role of the state in abuses by nonstate actors is not trivial: “the state is obliged not only to refrain from human rights abuses itself, but also has the duty to prevent abuses by third parties, including private actors, and to take positive measures for the provision of rights to everyone under the state’s jurisdiction” (Cornett, Gibney, & Haschke, 2016 , n.p.).

2. For more discussion about this still controversial idea, see Clark and Sikkink ( 2013 ), Richards ( 2016 ), Fariss ( 2017a , 2017b ), and Cingranelli and Filippov ( 2017 ).

3. It is necessary for economic wealth to be distributed throughout society before we can expect to see a link between economic development and improved human rights practices. As such, a high gross domestic product (GDP), coupled with a low GDP per capita, reflect a society that has not achieved economic advancement throughout the population. When we refer to “wealthy states,” we are discussing states with a high GDP coupled with a relatively high GDP per capita.

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The Journal of Human Rights seeks to broaden the study of human rights by fostering the critical re-examination of existing approaches to human rights, as well as developing new perspectives on the theory and practice of human rights. The journal aims to meet a globally growing interest in the study and practice of human rights by serving as an arena for the public discussion and scholarly analysis of human rights, broadly conceived.

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This article discusses the HRW strategy, judicial intervention and the favorable court order. Contextual factors were crucial in influencing the outcome of a judicial intervention in the struggle for formal water connections in slums. http://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2259420 📸: Kunal Kalra

In the UK, a rights-based approach to household food security is necessary to formulate policies that target the commodification of food and ensure a nutritious diet is available to all without race or class discrimination. http://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2259423 📸: Ehimetalor Akhere Unuabona

Do human rights treaty obligations matter for ratification? In @JofHumanRights, Dr. @kelly_zvobgo and coauthors show: 1. Treaties differ in the scope and scale of their obligations. 2. This variation can be measured. 3. It matters for ratification. https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2267578

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🚨Belated publication alert in @JofHumanRights. This article examines the theoretical and empirical implications of a very common problem in observations research: Galton's problem.

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Issue 22.1: The International Criminal Court at 25: Reassessing Processes and Outcomes

On July 17, 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) will mark the 25th anniversary of the adoption of the Rome Statute, its founding treaty. The Statute constituted a remarkable transfer of authority from sovereign states to an international institution: The ICC is the first permanent court charged with prosecuting individuals, including senior political and military leaders, for atrocity crimes. Per the Statute, the ICC was designed with the goals of ending impunity for these crimes, contributing to their prevention, and delivering justice to victims. To what extent has the ICC achieved these and other goals in the Rome Statute? The ICC’s upcoming anniversary provides an opportune moment to examine this question and take stock of the Court’s performance. This special issue of the Journal of Human Rights addresses this question from an empirical perspective, focusing on two themes: (1) the ICC’s relations with states, which critically condition its operations and impact, (2) the Court’s effectiveness in achieving the goals outlined in the Rome Statute, specifically ending impunity and mitigating violence.

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Human Rights Methodology

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In issue 17.4, JHR introduced a new “Methods Focus” series where authors explore various methodological approaches to the study of human rights. The series highlights the breadth of research that we publish in JHR.

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• Literary Research: The War Novel
• Feminist periscoping in research on border enforcement and human rights
• Using Images as Data in Political Violence Research

JHR’s Quantitative Dataverse

JHR’s Quantitative Dataverse is a tool aimed at advancing quantitative human rights scholarship –  an online portal (hosted through Harvard Dataverse) featuring all datasets associated with articles of this nature published in JHR. You can access the Dataverse site here:  https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/jhr

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Human Rights Law Research Guide

Introduction.

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Since the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the body of international human rights instruments has grown significantly.  As a result, researchers often struggle to navigate a bewildering array of international treaties, country-specific monitoring reports, judicial decisions issued by regional tribunals and by national courts, and related documentation.

This guide is designed to help researchers identify relevant secondary sources on human rights law and to quickly and efficiently locate the full texts of primary law materials, including treaties, country reports, and case law.  While resources of general interest to all human rights researchers are highlighted throughout the guide, special attention is paid to resources that specifically address the  human rights of women at the international level .

Key Resources for Human Rights Law Research

• UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) The OHCHR's website provides access to a wealth of documentation, including the core human rights treaties , links to the treaty bodies that monitor compliance with these treaties, other international human rights instruments , a directory of human rights information by country , and a directory of human rights databases .  
• Oxford Reports on International Law This subscription database includes more than 4,000 judicial decisions on human rights topics issued by international and regional tribunals and by national courts.  Begin by selecting “human rights” from the Subject menu in the blue navigation bar.  Then search by keyword or use the filters on the left to narrow.  
• RefWorld Although it focuses on refugee and asylum law, this UN database also includes materials that address many related human rights topics.  To search the database, enter words or phrases in the search box.  Then use the post-search filters, displayed to the left of the search results, to narrow.  Alternatively, you can browse by country , by document source , by document type , by keyword , and by thematic area .  It also possible to browse by collection .  Collections include legal instruments , case law , policy & guidance , and research & reports .   

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If you need assistance with human rights law research, visit the Research Help page of the Georgetown University Law Library's website. Or contact the Law Library's International and Foreign Law Department by phone (202-662-4195) or by email ( [email protected] ).  Georgetown Law Center students may schedule a one-on-one research consultation with a librarian.

For guidance in researching topics related to human rights law, consult the following Georgetown Law Library resources:  CALS Asylum Case Research Guide , the Treaty Research Guide , and the War Crimes Research Guide .

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What are americans’ top foreign policy priorities.

The majority of Americans say preventing terrorism and reducing the flow of illegal drugs into the country are top foreign policy priorities.

How COVID-19 Restrictions Affected Religious Groups Around the World in 2020

Nearly a quarter of countries used force to prevent religious gatherings during the pandemic; other government restrictions and social hostilities related to religion remained fairly stable.

Methodology

Results presented in this data essay are drawn from nationally representative surveys conducted over the past 20 years in more than 60 countries.

How Global Public Opinion of China Has Shifted in the Xi Era

The Chinese Communist Party is preparing for its 20th National Congress, an event likely to result in an unprecedented third term for President Xi Jinping. Since Xi took office in 2013, opinion of China in the U.S. and other advanced economies has turned more negative. How did it get to be this way?

Negative Views of China Tied to Critical Views of Its Policies on Human Rights

Large majorities in most of the 19 countries surveyed have negative views of China, but relatively few say bilateral relations are bad.

Fast facts about views of China ahead of the 2022 Beijing Olympics

Here are recent findings about Americans’ views of the diplomatic boycott and how people in the U.S. and around the world see China.

More adults approve than disapprove of U.S. diplomatic boycott of Olympics; few have heard much about it

About nine-in-ten U.S. adults (91%) say they have heard little (46%) or nothing at all (45%) about the diplomatic boycott of the Olympics.

Large Majorities Say China Does Not Respect the Personal Freedoms of Its People

Unfavorable views of China also hover near historic highs in most of the 17 advanced economies surveyed.

Most Americans Support Tough Stance Toward China on Human Rights, Economic Issues

Fewer adults have confidence in Joe Biden to handle the U.S.-China relationship than other foreign policy issues.

International Cooperation Welcomed Across 14 Advanced Economies

The United Nations is broadly credited with promoting peace and human rights as younger adults are more supportive of cooperation with other countries.

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New and emerging human rights issues

The URG aims to be ahead of the curve in identifying and offering timely policy analysis and advice on human rights concerns relevant to today’s world. Concern for human rights is central to many of the contemporary world’s most important challenges. From environmental protests in Asia to debates about the nature of sustainable development in New York, and from concern about the welfare of cross-border migrants to growing interest in the power of technology to support freedom of speech – human rights are never far from the spotlight. Through its work on contemporary and emerging human rights issues, the Group looks to help policy-makers and policy-influencers understand the dynamics of a particular issue and its possible evolution and implications, as well as provide policy recommendations thereon.

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Inequality and social rights.

This project looks at the causes and consequences of inequalities related to a single social right: the right to education. How do State policies related to access to quality education, at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, including on the important issue of public vs. private provision, effect the enjoyment of the right to education? Do discriminatory educational policies lead to inequalities in the enjoyment of other rights and in society as a whole? In countries with strong records of ensuring equal access to quality education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, does society as a whole suffer fewer inequalities? The project uses a combination of quantitative data analysis (using similar methods to those used in URG’s report on the human rights impacts of corruption) and a qualitative assessment of various country case studies, to understand the relationship between equality and social rights – especially the right to education.

The right to a healthy and sustainable environment

The right to a clean and healthy environment was left out of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (and therefore the two Covenants) because it was drafted before the advent of the modern environmental movement in the 1960s and 70s. However, over recent years, there has been a growing interest and movement, at national, regional and international levels, to correct this oversight, and to declare a universal right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment.

Under this project, URG works with those States determined to push, in 2020-2021, for the universal recognition of the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment. It does so by helping to make the case that such a recognition would have real-world practical value – both in terms of better protecting and promoting individual human rights, and in terms of protecting and conserving the natural environment. At the same time, URG continues its work to support and raise awareness about the vital work of EHRDs, and to better protect them from risk.

Business, human rights and corruption

In May 2018, URG published a policy report which demonstrated for the first time (using empirical evidence) that corruption has significant negative impacts on the enjoyment of human rights, and that – conversely – the best way to prevent corruption is to strengthen respect for, and the promotion and protection of, human rights (i.e. address root causes). Through the 2018 study it also became clear that corruption and the worst instances of human rights violations (including the killing of EHRDs) tend to happen at the intersection of government and businesses/commercial interests.

The proposed project, to be taken forward in cooperation with the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre, would aim to help move governments and businesses from a contemporary mindset characterised by compartmentalisation (i.e. ‘CSR,’ ‘business and human rights,’ business and corruption,’ ‘business and climate change,’ and ‘business and the environment’) and an emphasis on ‘compliance;’ to a more holistic mindset based on an understanding that human rights, anti-corruption, environmental protection, climate change, and sustainable national development are all interlinked and mutually reinforcing, and that a proactive or preventative approach to these issues is preferable to one based on meeting minimum legal requirements. The project will do so through a mixture of international-level research (especially focused on identifying and sharing good practices); platforms for exchange between governments, civil society and businesses; and the ‘testing’ of ideas through on-the-ground projects in Latin America.

Environmental human rights defenders

This project aims at listening to the EHRDs and understanding their specific situations and challenges. A first phase of this project led to a report outlining the increasingly worrying situation faced by the EHRDs, which includes harassment, violence and death. The policy report aims at contributing to a better understanding of the contemporary situation of the EHRDs around the world and the rationale behind human rights violations against the EHRDs, which are increasing. The report also presents recommendations to the international community on how to better protect and promote the rights of the EHRDs and how to “defend defenders” in a better way, with a biew of enabling them to continue their vital work.

The second phase of this project, to look for some of the findings published in the report produced under the first phase of the project, and to carry out several regional consultations in Latin America, with a view to identifying and implementing effective solutions for Challenges and problems faced by the EHRDs.

Previous projects

Corruption and human rights.

Corruption compromises States’ ability to fulfil their obligation to promote, respect, and protect the human rights of individuals within their jurisdictions. Human rights are indivisible and interdependent, and the consequences of corruption are multiple and touch on all human rights — civil and political rights; economic, social and cultural rights; and on the right to development. Yet, until now, it has been largely ignored as a human rights issue. With the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 – and most notably in this regard, SDG 16 – increased awareness has spread within the UN system of the detrimental impact of corruption on the enjoyment of human rights.

This project endeavoured to strengthen the role of the Human Rights Council and the wider UN system in the fight against corruption, through, inter alia, delivering objective, fact-based statistical research on the nature and extent of the impact of corruption on human rights; reflecting on country-specific case studies; and providing insight and counsel on the potential establishment of new types of mechanisms within the UN human rights mechanisms to support States in combatting corruption.

Coherence on international policy making on preventing violent extremism, radicalisation, intolerance, and incitement

Terrorism and violent extremism are among the most serious threats to global human rights and security. As such, in order for any strategy to combat violent extremism to be successful and avoid becoming self-defeating, must rely on a human rights-based approach.

This project sought to, inter alia, analyse evolving international strategies to prevent violent extremism, radicalisation, intolerance and incitement to hatred; assess how UN strategies on tackling violent extremism connect to other areas of its work – including initiatives on combatting religious intolerance, protecting human rights while countering terrorism, and enhancing human rights education; and provide policymakers with recommendations on how to develop more effective strategies – at the national and international level, which both effectively prevent violent extremism and promote the full enjoyment of human rights.

Human rights and the Sustainable Development Goals

The Declaration on the Rights to Development turned thirty years old in 2016, yet remains as divisive as it was at the time of its adoption. While proponents of the right assert its relevance or primacy, sceptics relegate it to secondary importance or even deny its existence all together.

In 2016, the 30th   anniversary of the Declaration, the adoption of both the SDGs (which explicitly recognise the right to development), and the Paris Agreement on climate change presented a new opportunity to replace this division with a common understanding, among States and other key stakeholders, as to what the right to development is; what it means; why it is important; and how it should be realised.

This project sought to contribute to such realignment and help the international community move beyond misconceptions and towards realising the right, together with all other rights, including the realisation of the SDGs. The project endeavoured to, inter alia,  present an objective analysis of the debate today; create a safe space for States and other stakeholders to confront misconceptions, build bridges, and exchange views on the links between human rights and development, understand the role of the UN human rights system in contributing to sustainable development and the realisation of the SDGs; and to identify gaps in that contribution.

Human rights, climate change and displacement

Climate change has enormous implications for the enjoyment of a wide range of internationally protected human rights. This is especially the case for people in already vulnerable situations. Over the past 8 years, the international community has taken a number of steps to leverage human rights law and principles to strengthen international responses to global warming. One of the most important human impacts of climate change will be on displacement. Already millions of people are forcibly displaced each year by natural disasters. With the effects of climate change, the frequency and intensity of such disasters will further increase, as will the number of people being displaced across borders. Yet, at present the international protection framework for such scenarios is insufficient.

This project presented a critique of attempts, led by the Human Rights Council and its mechanism, to promote a ‘rights-informed’ approach to climate change policy. The project also provided counsel on how the international community should address the global protection gap for persons displaced across borders in the context of disasters.

Business perceptions and opinions

Over the last decade, the field of business and human rights has seen a dramatic evolution, from a situation in which companies and human rights activists were at odds, to one in which stakeholders have begun to approach a common understanding of the risks, challenges, and opportunities involved.

This project sought to analyse levels of respect for human rights among businesses around the world through an annual global survey, conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). The survey of nearly 900 CEOs was designed to understand their views, perceptions, strategies, and actions in the area of human rights and the degree to which the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights have been translated from principles into practice.

The project was initiated and sponsored by the Universal Rights Group. It also benefited from the support of DLA Piper, Lilly, Mazars, the Global Business Initiative on Human Rights (GBI), Telenor Group, the International Chamber of Commerce, IPIECA, the International Organisation of Employers (IOE), the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The survey received guidance from the UN Working Group on business and human rights.

Media perceptions

Transparency, visibility (public awareness) and accountability are essential to the credibility and effectiveness of the Human Rights Council and its mechanisms.

If the Council is to remain a credible institution, it is important not only that it fulfills its mandate to promote and protect human rights, but that the wider public, around the world, sees that it is able to do so. It is also important for individuals around the world to be armed with knowledge of commitments made and actions taken by their governments at international level in order to hold them to account.

In both regards the role of the media is vital: both to help break the ‘Geneva bubble’ and to hold members of the Council accountable for the positions they take and the votes they cast.

This project analysed international press coverage of the work of the Human Rights Council and sought to strengthen media interest in and knowledge about the Council and its work.

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Human Rights Law Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive guide on human rights law research paper topics tailored for law students assigned with research paper tasks. The page aims to provide comprehensive guidance and resources to students studying law and assigned with research paper tasks in the field of human rights law. It presents a diverse range of research paper topics related to human rights law, covering ten distinct categories, each containing ten topics for exploration. Furthermore, the page includes an in-depth article on human rights law, tips on selecting compelling human rights law research paper topics, and guidelines for writing a successful research paper. The page also highlights the custom writing services offered by iResearchNet, tailored to meet students’ academic needs and requirements in the domain of human rights law.

100 Human Rights Law Research Paper Topics

In the realm of human rights law, the depth and breadth of research topics are vast, reflecting the complexities of the field and its dynamic nature. This comprehensive list of human rights law research paper topics spans ten categories, each presenting ten engaging and thought-provoking subjects for exploration. From international perspectives to domestic applications, these topics cover various dimensions of human rights law, shedding light on critical issues, ongoing challenges, and evolving debates. Whether students are interested in human rights advocacy, humanitarian law, discrimination, or constitutional protections, this list aims to inspire and equip them with the right tools to embark on their research journey.

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• Freedom of Expression and Hate Speech Laws: Striking a Balance
• The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age: Challenges and Protections
• Religious Freedom and the Clash of Beliefs in Pluralistic Societies
• LGBTQ+ Rights and the Pursuit of Equality: Legal Progress and Challenges
• Racial Profiling and Discrimination: Addressing Systemic Biases
• Women’s Rights and Gender Equality: Empowerment and Legal Reforms
• The Rights of Persons with Disabilities: Inclusion and Accessibility
• Juvenile Justice and Youth Rights: Restorative Approaches
• The Right to Education: Ensuring Access and Quality
• Combating Human Trafficking: Legal Frameworks and Anti-Trafficking Efforts
• Universal Human Rights Declarations and International Enforcement
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Promoting Human Rights
• The United Nations Human Rights Council: Achievements and Limitations
• International Criminal Court and the Pursuit of Accountability for Atrocities
• The Impact of Customary International Law on Human Rights Norms
• Regional Human Rights Systems: Advancing Rights Protection in Specific Areas
• The Intersection of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law
• Diplomacy and Human Rights: Balancing National Interests and Global Responsibilities
• Economic Sanctions and Human Rights: Assessing Their Effectiveness and Consequences
• The Responsibility to Protect: Sovereignty and Humanitarian Interventions
• Income Inequality and Human Rights: Addressing Economic Disparities
• Access to Healthcare as a Human Right: Equity and Universal Coverage
• Housing Rights and Homelessness: Legal Strategies for Housing Security
• Environmental Justice and Human Rights: Protecting Vulnerable Communities
• Indigenous Rights and Land Restitution: Recognizing Past Injustices
• The Impact of Armed Conflicts on Human Rights and Refugee Crisis
• Discrimination and Marginalization of Minority Groups: Legal Responses
• Labor Rights and Worker Protections: Fair Employment Practices
• Human Rights and Access to Justice: Overcoming Barriers to Legal Remedies
• Rights of Migrants and Refugees: Challenges in Migration Policies
• Capital Punishment and Human Rights: Abolition and Alternatives
• The Right to a Fair Trial: Legal Safeguards and Due Process
• Prison Conditions and Human Rights: Rehabilitation vs. Punishment
• Police Accountability and Use of Force: Balancing Public Safety and Rights
• Juvenile Justice Reform: Rethinking Punishment for Young Offenders
• Human Rights Implications of Cybercrime and Cybersecurity Measures
• Counterterrorism Laws and Civil Liberties: Balancing Security and Rights
• The Rights of Victims and Witness Protection in Criminal Proceedings
• Criminalization of Drug Use and Human Rights: Health Approaches vs. Punitive Measures
• Human Rights and the Right to Legal Representation: Ensuring Access to Counsel
• Reproductive Rights and Women’s Health: Legal Battles and Access to Care
• Mental Health Law and Human Rights: Balancing Autonomy and Protection
• Access to Medicines and Patent Rights: Global Health Equity
• Medical Ethics and Human Rights: Informed Consent and Research Ethics
• LGBTQ+ Health Rights and Healthcare Disparities: Advocacy and Legal Reforms
• Disability Rights and Healthcare Accessibility: Accommodations and Inclusion
• The Right to Die with Dignity: Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia Laws
• Human Rights Implications of COVID-19 Pandemic Response: Balancing Public Health and Liberties
• Substance Use and Harm Reduction: Public Health Approaches and Legal Barriers
• Health Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons: Challenges in Providing Care
• Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflicts: Legal Frameworks and Challenges
• The Right to Seek Asylum: International Refugee Law and Responsibilities
• War Crimes and International Justice: The Role of International Criminal Tribunals
• Human Rights Implications of Autonomous Weapons and Military Technologies
• The Role of Humanitarian Organizations in Conflict Zones: Safety and Access
• The Responsibility to Protect: Preventing Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity
• Human Rights and Internally Displaced Persons: Legal Recognition and Protections
• The Impact of Armed Conflicts on Children’s Rights: Child Soldiers and Protection Measures
• Gender-Based Violence in Armed Conflicts: Legal Responses and Accountability
• Humanitarian Interventions and the Sovereignty Debate: Balancing Global Responsibility and Non-Interference
• The Right to a Healthy Environment: Environmental Protections and Human Rights
• Climate Change and Human Rights: Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
• Indigenous Rights and Environmental Conservation: Balancing Preservation and Development
• Environmental Justice and Communities of Color: Overcoming Environmental Racism
• The Impact of Extractive Industries on Human Rights and Environmental Preservation
• Biodiversity Conservation and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights: Conflict and Collaboration
• The Right to Water and Sanitation: Access and Equity in Water Management
• Land Rights and Environmental Protection: Balancing Development and Conservation
• Environmental Impact Assessments and Human Rights: Ensuring Accountability and Participation
• The Role of the International Court of Justice in Protecting Human Rights
• The United Nations Human Rights Council and its Effectiveness in Promoting Rights
• Human Rights in Regional Organizations: The European Court of Human Rights
• The Role of International NGOs in Monitoring and Advocating for Human Rights
• International Human Rights Mechanisms and State Compliance: Challenges and Achievements
• The Role of Human Rights in International Trade Agreements and Economic Cooperation
• Human Rights in Armed Conflict: The Geneva Conventions and Customary International Law
• International Criminal Law and Prosecution of Human Rights Violations
• The Role of the United Nations in Protecting Children’s Rights
• Human Rights and Peacekeeping Operations: Balancing Security and Rights
• Digital Privacy and Human Rights: Challenges in the Age of Big Data
• The Right to Freedom of Expression in the Digital Era: Censorship and Online Speech
• Human Rights Implications of Artificial Intelligence and Automation
• Surveillance and Human Rights: Balancing Security and Privacy
• The Right to Internet Access as a Human Right: Universal Connectivity and Digital Equity
• Online Harassment and Cyberbullying: Legal Protections and Remedies
• Data Protection and Human Rights: Ensuring Personal Information Security
• Intellectual Property Rights and Access to Knowledge: Copyright and Cultural Rights
• The Right to Information and Government Transparency: Open Data and Accountability
• The Use of Drones in Armed Conflicts: Ethical and Legal Implications
• The Role of Human Rights Activism in Advancing Social Change
• The Intersectionality of Human Rights: Addressing Multiple Forms of Discrimination
• Indigenous Rights Movements and Land Justice: Advocacy and Legal Strategies
• The LGBTQ+ Rights Movement: Progress and Challenges in the Fight for Equality
• Women’s Rights Movements and Legal Reforms: Empowerment and Gender Equality
• Disability Rights Advocacy and the Fight for Inclusion and Accessibility
• Youth-Led Movements for Climate Justice and Environmental Rights
• The Black Lives Matter Movement and Police Accountability: Demanding Justice and Reform
• Human Rights and Migrant Rights Movements: Standing for Justice and Dignity
• Human Rights and Corporate Accountability: Advocating for Corporate Social Responsibility

The field of human rights law presents a dynamic landscape with a plethora of research paper topics that delve into critical social, political, and ethical issues. The ten categories presented here offer students a panoramic view of the diverse and interrelated areas within human rights law. As they embark on their research endeavors, students have the opportunity to explore the complexities and implications of human rights from various perspectives, both nationally and globally. The ever-evolving nature of human rights law ensures that this field will continue to inspire and challenge scholars, advocates, and policymakers in their pursuit of justice, equality, and human dignity. Whether it is advocating for marginalized communities, addressing humanitarian crises, or examining the intersection of technology and human rights, these topics will empower students to contribute meaningfully to the discourse and advancement of human rights principles worldwide. The journey of human rights research is both transformative and empowering, offering the potential to effect positive change in the lives of millions.

Human Rights Law: Exploring the Range of Topics

Human rights law is a dynamic and critical field that addresses the fundamental rights and freedoms inherent to all human beings. Rooted in the belief in the inherent dignity and worth of every individual, human rights law seeks to protect and promote these rights, ensuring that all people can live in equality, freedom, and peace. As a multidimensional area of study, human rights law offers a wide range of research paper topics that delve into the complexities of international and domestic legal frameworks, the intersections between human rights and other fields of law, and the evolving challenges in safeguarding human rights in an ever-changing world.

• The Universality and Cultural Relativism of Human Rights : The concept of human rights raises intriguing questions about the universality of rights versus the cultural relativism of values. Research papers in this category may explore the tensions between universal human rights norms and cultural practices, analyzing how cultural contexts can impact the interpretation and implementation of human rights.
• Human Rights and Armed Conflicts : Armed conflicts present severe challenges to human rights, with civilian populations often suffering the most. Human rights law research paper topics in this area may focus on the protection of human rights during armed conflicts, including issues of war crimes, humanitarian law, and the role of international institutions in ensuring accountability for human rights violations.
• Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights : Economic, social, and cultural rights are essential components of human rights law, emphasizing access to education, healthcare, housing, and social security. Research papers may analyze the legal frameworks and challenges in implementing these rights, especially in the context of poverty, inequality, and socio-economic development.
• Human Rights and Refugees : The plight of refugees and asylum seekers is a pressing human rights issue worldwide. Research topics in this area may examine the legal protections and challenges faced by refugees, the role of international organizations in supporting displaced populations, and the impacts of immigration policies on human rights.
• Human Rights and Discrimination : Discrimination on various grounds, such as race, gender, religion, and disability, continues to be a significant human rights concern. Research papers may explore legal frameworks and strategies to combat discrimination, including the role of affirmative action, equality laws, and anti-discrimination policies.
• Freedom of Expression and Media Rights : Freedom of expression is a cornerstone of human rights law, and the media plays a crucial role in fostering democracy and accountability. Research topics in this category may delve into issues of media freedom, censorship, and the balance between free speech and hate speech.
• Human Rights and Technology : Advancements in technology bring both opportunities and challenges to human rights protection. Research papers in this area may examine issues such as digital privacy, surveillance, artificial intelligence, and the right to access information in the digital age.
• Human Rights and Health : Health is intricately linked to human rights, as access to healthcare is a fundamental right. Research topics may explore the right to health and the challenges in ensuring equitable access to healthcare services, especially in vulnerable populations.
• Gender and Human Rights : Gender equality is a central theme in human rights law, and research papers in this category may focus on women’s rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and the intersections between gender and other human rights issues.
• Human Rights and Business : The impact of business practices on human rights has become a significant area of concern. Research topics may explore corporate social responsibility, business and human rights initiatives, and the role of businesses in upholding human rights standards.

The realm of human rights law is vast and multifaceted, covering a wide array of topics and issues that demand critical examination and research. From armed conflicts to economic disparities, from refugees’ rights to media freedom, and from technology to health, the field of human rights law offers a rich landscape for exploration and advocacy. As students and scholars delve into these research paper topics, they engage in crucial discussions on human rights protection, social justice, and the promotion of dignity and equality for all. By striving for a deeper understanding of human rights and their complexities, we contribute to creating a more just, compassionate, and rights-respecting world. At iResearchNet, we are committed to supporting students in their academic pursuits by providing expert assistance and custom research paper writing services that adhere to the highest standards of quality and excellence. Together, let us explore the frontiers of human rights law and work towards a future where human rights are upheld and protected for every individual, without exception.

How to Choose a Human Rights Law Topic

Choosing a compelling and relevant research paper topic is a crucial step in the academic journey of students studying human rights law. As a multifaceted and evolving field, human rights law offers a vast array of topics to explore, each with its unique challenges and opportunities. However, the abundance of choices can also be overwhelming, leaving students unsure of where to begin. In this section, we will provide valuable insights and practical tips on how to select the most suitable and engaging human rights law research paper topics.

• Identify Your Interests and Passions : The first step in choosing a research paper topic is to reflect on your personal interests and passions within the field of human rights law. What particular human rights issues resonate with you the most? Are you drawn to topics related to gender equality, access to healthcare, refugees’ rights, or freedom of expression? Identifying your interests will not only make the research process more enjoyable but also enable you to invest the necessary time and effort into producing a compelling and meaningful paper.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Before finalizing a research paper topic, it is essential to conduct preliminary research to gain a broader understanding of the current state of knowledge in the chosen area. Review academic journals, books, policy papers, and reports related to your potential topics. This preliminary research will not only help you refine your topic but also identify any gaps in the existing literature that you could address in your research.
• Consider the Scope and Feasibility : While it may be tempting to choose a broad and ambitious topic, it is essential to consider the scope and feasibility of your research. A topic that is too broad may lack focus, while a topic that is too narrow may limit your ability to find sufficient research material. Strike a balance between a topic that is comprehensive enough to explore in-depth and one that is manageable within the scope of your research project.
• Examine Current Debates and Controversies : Human rights law is often marked by ongoing debates and controversies surrounding certain issues. Exploring topics that are currently subject to heated discussions allows you to contribute to these debates and engage with cutting-edge research. Consider topics related to emerging challenges in human rights protection, the implications of new technologies on human rights, or the impact of global events on human rights law.
• Consult with Professors and Peers : Seek guidance and feedback from your professors, advisors, and peers during the topic selection process. Discussing your ideas with knowledgeable individuals can provide valuable insights and help you refine your research focus. They can also suggest additional resources and research directions that you may not have considered.
• Choose a Researchable and Original Topic : Select a research paper topic that is not only interesting but also researchable and original. Ensure that there is a sufficient amount of credible sources and data available for your chosen topic. Additionally, strive to bring a unique perspective or approach to your research to contribute new insights to the field of human rights law.
• Stay Updated on Current Events : Human rights issues are dynamic and influenced by current events and global developments. Keep yourself updated on recent news, legal developments, and policy changes related to human rights. Monitoring current events will help you identify timely and relevant research paper topics that address real-world challenges.
• Consider the Impact and Real-World Relevance : Choose a research paper topic that has practical significance and real-world relevance. Human rights law is not merely an academic exercise; it has a direct impact on the lives of individuals and communities worldwide. Consider topics that have the potential to contribute to positive change, promote human rights awareness, or address pressing human rights challenges.
• Be Open to Flexibility and Adaptation : As you delve deeper into your research, be open to adapting and refining your research paper topic based on new insights and findings. Sometimes, the direction of your research may evolve, and being flexible in your approach allows you to produce a more nuanced and comprehensive paper.
• Seek Inspiration from iResearchNet : At iResearchNet, we understand the significance of choosing the right research paper topic. Our team of expert writers and researchers is well-versed in various areas of human rights law and can provide valuable insights and inspiration to help you select the perfect topic for your research paper. With our assistance, you can embark on a journey of exploration and discovery, delving into the complexities and nuances of human rights law while making a meaningful contribution to the field.

Selecting a research paper topic in human rights law requires careful consideration and thoughtful reflection. By identifying your interests, conducting preliminary research, and staying updated on current events, you can choose a topic that is not only academically stimulating but also relevant and impactful. At iResearchNet, we are committed to supporting students in their academic pursuits by offering expert guidance and custom research paper writing services. Together, let us embark on a journey of academic excellence and advocacy, working towards a world where human rights are upheld and protected for all.

How to Write a Human Rights Law Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of human rights law requires careful planning, thorough research, and a clear understanding of the subject matter. As you embark on this academic endeavor, you will encounter various challenges and opportunities to delve deep into the complexities of human rights issues. In this section, we will provide you with a comprehensive guide on how to write a compelling and impactful human rights law research paper.

• Understand the Research Question : The first step in writing a research paper is to understand and define your research question. Your research question should be clear, focused, and specific, addressing a particular aspect of human rights law. It should guide your research and provide a framework for your paper.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Human rights law is a multidisciplinary field that draws on legal principles, international treaties, ethical considerations, and socio-political aspects. To write an authoritative research paper, conduct in-depth research from a variety of credible sources, including academic journals, legal databases, government publications, and reputable websites. Take notes and organize your findings to support your arguments effectively.
• Create an Outline : Organize your research and ideas by creating a well-structured outline for your research paper. An outline helps you maintain a logical flow of information, ensuring that your paper is cohesive and coherent. Divide your paper into sections and subsections, each addressing a specific aspect of your research question.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that summarizes the main argument of your research paper. Your thesis statement should convey the purpose of your paper and guide readers on what to expect throughout the document.
• Introduction : Begin your research paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on the human rights issue you are addressing. Introduce the significance of the topic, explain its relevance in the context of human rights law, and present your thesis statement.
• Literature Review : Incorporate a literature review section in your research paper to discuss the existing body of knowledge on the topic. Analyze and critically evaluate relevant studies, theories, and legal cases related to your research question. Identify any gaps or inconsistencies in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology : If your research paper involves empirical research or data analysis, outline your methodology in this section. Describe the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques you used to obtain results. Explain how your chosen methodology aligns with your research question and contributes to the overall understanding of the human rights issue.
• Analysis and Findings : Present your research findings and analyze the data in the context of your research question. Use evidence and examples from your research to support your arguments. Analyze the implications of your findings on the human rights issue and its potential impact on policies, laws, or practices.
• Discussion : In the discussion section, interpret your research findings and relate them to the existing body of knowledge. Address any limitations or challenges encountered during your research and suggest avenues for further exploration.
• Conclusion : Summarize the key points of your research paper in the conclusion section. Restate your thesis statement and highlight the main findings of your study. Discuss the implications of your research on human rights law and suggest potential areas for future research.
• Citations and Referencing : Properly cite all the sources used in your research paper following the required citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Accurate referencing is essential to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism.
• Proofreading and Editing : Before submitting your research paper, thoroughly proofread and edit it to eliminate any grammatical errors, typos, or inconsistencies. Ensure that your paper adheres to the formatting and style guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution.

Writing a human rights law research paper is a rewarding and intellectually stimulating experience. By understanding your research question, conducting in-depth research, and organizing your paper effectively, you can produce a compelling and impactful piece of academic work. Remember to stay focused on your thesis statement and support your arguments with credible evidence. At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges of writing a research paper and are here to support you with expert guidance and custom research paper writing services. Together, let us contribute to the advancement of human rights knowledge and advocate for a more just and equitable world.

iResearchNet’s Custom Research Paper Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the significance of human rights law and its impact on shaping a just and equitable society. We recognize that students pursuing law studies often face various academic challenges, including the task of writing comprehensive and well-researched research papers on complex human rights issues. To support students in their academic journey and contribute to the advancement of human rights knowledge, we offer custom human rights law research paper writing services. Our team of expert degree-holding writers is dedicated to providing top-quality, customized solutions tailored to meet your specific research needs. With our comprehensive services, you can embark on a seamless and rewarding research paper writing experience.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : At iResearchNet, we have a team of expert writers with advanced degrees in law and human rights-related fields. Our writers possess extensive knowledge of human rights principles, international treaties, and legal frameworks, enabling them to craft well-informed and insightful research papers.
• Custom Written Works : We understand that each research paper is unique, and therefore, we offer fully custom-written papers designed to meet your specific requirements. Our writers conduct in-depth research on your chosen topic and tailor the paper to align with your research question and academic guidelines.
• In-Depth Research : Our writers are adept at conducting comprehensive and in-depth research from a variety of credible sources, ensuring that your research paper is well-supported with evidence and examples.
• Custom Formatting : We are well-versed in different citation styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Our writers meticulously follow the required formatting guidelines to ensure that your research paper adheres to the highest academic standards.
• Top Quality : We prioritize quality and excellence in every research paper we deliver. Our team of skilled editors reviews each paper to ensure it is free from errors and adheres to academic standards.
• Customized Solutions : We recognize that human rights law encompasses a wide range of topics and issues. Our custom writing services allow you to choose your preferred research topic and specify any particular requirements you have for the paper.
• Flexible Pricing : We offer flexible pricing options to accommodate students’ varying budgetary constraints. Our pricing is competitive, and we provide transparent cost estimates upfront.
• Short Deadlines : We understand the pressures of tight deadlines and offer expedited services to cater to urgent research paper writing needs. Our writers are capable of delivering high-quality papers within short timeframes, even as little as 3 hours.
• Timely Delivery : Punctuality is one of our core values. We are committed to delivering your research paper within the agreed-upon deadline, allowing you ample time for review and submission.
• 24/7 Support : Our customer support team is available 24/7 to address any inquiries, concerns, or updates regarding your research paper. Feel free to reach out to us at any time for prompt assistance.
• Absolute Privacy : At iResearchNet, we prioritize your privacy and confidentiality. All your personal information and research paper details are handled with the utmost confidentiality and stored securely.
• Easy Order Tracking : Stay updated on the progress of your research paper with our easy-to-use order tracking system. You can monitor the status of your paper and communicate directly with your assigned writer.
• Money Back Guarantee : We are committed to customer satisfaction. If, for any reason, you are not satisfied with the final research paper, we offer a money-back guarantee to ensure your peace of mind.

With iResearchNet’s custom human rights law research paper writing services, you can unlock the full potential of your academic journey. Our team of expert writers is here to support you in exploring the complexities of human rights law and contributing to the advancement of this critical field. Whether you need assistance in choosing a research topic, conducting in-depth research, or crafting a well-structured paper, we are here to assist you every step of the way. Empower your human rights law research with iResearchNet and make a meaningful impact on the world.

Empower Your Human Rights Law Research with iResearchNet

Are you ready to embark on a transformative journey into the realm of human rights law research? iResearchNet is your trusted partner in this noble pursuit. Our commitment to excellence, dedication to academic integrity, and passion for advancing human rights knowledge make us the perfect choice for all your research paper needs.

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• Introduction

Origins in ancient Greece and Rome

• Natural law transformed into natural rights
• “Nonsense upon stilts”: the critics of natural rights
• The persistence of the notion
• The nature of human rights: commonly accepted postulates
• Liberté : civil and political rights
• Égalité : economic, social, and cultural rights
• Fraternité : solidarity or group rights
• Liberté versus égalité
• The relevance of custom and tradition: the universalist-relativist debate
• Inherent risks in the debate
• Developments before World War II
• The UN Commission on Human Rights and its instruments
• The UN Human Rights Council and its instruments
• Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
• The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Its Optional Protocols
• Other UN human rights conventions and declarations
• Human rights and the Helsinki process
• Human rights in Europe
• Human rights in the Americas
• Human rights in Africa
• Human rights in the Arab world
• Human rights in Asia
• International human rights in domestic courts
• Human rights in the early 21st century

human rights

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• U. S. Department of State - Human Rights
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Human Rights
• The History Learning Site - Human Rights
• Cornell University Law School - Human rights
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Human Rights
• Social Sciences Libretexts - Human Rights
• human rights - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• human rights - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

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human rights , rights that belong to an individual or group of individuals simply for being human, or as a consequence of inherent human vulnerability, or because they are requisite to the possibility of a just society. Whatever their theoretical justification, human rights refer to a wide continuum of values or capabilities thought to enhance human agency or protect human interests and declared to be universal in character, in some sense equally claimed for all human beings, present and future.

It is a common observation that human beings everywhere require the realization of diverse values or capabilities to ensure their individual and collective well-being. It also is a common observation that this requirement—whether conceived or expressed as a moral or a legal demand—is often painfully frustrated by social as well as natural forces, resulting in exploitation, oppression, persecution, and other forms of deprivation. Deeply rooted in these twin observations are the beginnings of what today are called “human rights” and the national and international legal processes associated with them.

Historical development

The expression human rights is relatively new, having come into everyday parlance only since World War II , the founding of the United Nations in 1945, and the adoption by the UN General Assembly of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. It replaced the phrase natural rights, which fell into disfavour in the 19th century in part because the concept of natural law (to which it was intimately linked) had become controversial with the rise of legal positivism . Legal positivism rejected the theory, long espoused by the Roman Catholic Church , that law must be moral to be law. The term human rights also replaced the later phrase the rights of Man, which was not universally understood to include the rights of women.

Most students of human rights trace the origins of the concept of human rights to ancient Greece and Rome , where it was closely tied to the doctrines of the Stoics , who held that human conduct should be judged according to, and brought into harmony with, the law of nature . A classic example of this view is given in Sophocles ’ play Antigone , in which the title character, upon being reproached by King Creon for defying his command not to bury her slain brother, asserted that she acted in accordance with the immutable laws of the gods.

In part because Stoicism played a key role in its formation and spread, Roman law similarly allowed for the existence of a natural law and with it—pursuant to the jus gentium (“law of nations”)—certain universal rights that extended beyond the rights of citizenship. According to the Roman jurist Ulpian , for example, natural law was that which nature, not the state, assures to all human beings, Roman citizens or not.

It was not until after the Middle Ages , however, that natural law became associated with natural rights. In Greco-Roman and medieval times, doctrines of natural law concerned mainly the duties, rather than the rights, of “Man.” Moreover, as evidenced in the writings of Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas , these doctrines recognized the legitimacy of slavery and serfdom and, in so doing, excluded perhaps the most important ideas of human rights as they are understood today—freedom (or liberty) and equality .

The conception of human rights as natural rights (as opposed to a classical natural order of obligation) was made possible by certain basic societal changes, which took place gradually beginning with the decline of European feudalism from about the 13th century and continuing through the Renaissance to the Peace of Westphalia (1648). During this period, resistance to religious intolerance and political and economic bondage; the evident failure of rulers to meet their obligations under natural law; and the unprecedented commitment to individual expression and worldly experience that was characteristic of the Renaissance all combined to shift the conception of natural law from duties to rights. The teachings of Aquinas and Hugo Grotius on the European continent, the Magna Carta (1215) and its companion Charter of the Forests (1217), the Petition of Right (1628), and the English Bill of Rights (1689) in England were signs of this change. Each testified to the increasingly popular view that human beings are endowed with certain eternal and inalienable rights that never were renounced when humankind “contracted” to enter the social order from the natural order and never were diminished by the claim of the “ divine right of kings .”

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HIS 100 - Perspectives in History

Inequality and human rights.

Image by Markus Spiske, retrieved via Unsplash

The concept of inequality and humans rights is an issue that dates far back into the depths of human history. If this is an area of interest to you, please select one of the three historical events on the menu to the left for your course work. Below you can learn more about each topic first by clicking on the title. 

• Tulsa Massacre
• Wounded Knee Occupation
• Stonewall Rebellion

Each of these topics listed above are linked to a Research Starter, which is a  tertiary source . Tertiary sources are great to get background information on a topic, but these are not meant to be cited in your assignment. Once you click on the topic of your choice from the menu, you will find a number of primary and secondary sources to use in your assignment. Read through each source to learn more about your chosen historical event. 

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What Are Human Rights?

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more.  Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination.

International Human Rights Law

International human rights law  lays down the obligations of Governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.

One of the great achievements of the United Nations is the creation of a comprehensive body of human rights law—a universal and internationally protected code to which all nations can subscribe and all people aspire. The United Nations has defined a broad range of internationally accepted rights, including civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. It has also established mechanisms to promote and protect these rights and to assist states in carrying out their responsibilities.

The foundations of this body of law are the  Charter  of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , adopted by the General Assembly in 1945 and 1948, respectively.  Since then, the United Nations has gradually expanded human rights law to encompass specific standards for women, children, persons with disabilities, minorities and other vulnerable groups, who now possess rights that protect them from discrimination that had long been common in many societies.

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights  (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III)  as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. Since its adoption in 1948, the UDHR has been translated into more than  500 languages  - the most translated document in the world - and has inspired the constitutions of many newly independent States and many new democracies. The UDHR, together with the  International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights  and its two  Optional Protocols  (on the complaints procedure and on the death penalty) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and its Optional Protocol, form the so-called  International Bill of Human Rights .

Economic, social and cultural rights

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights  entered into force in 1976. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is the body of 18  independent experts  that monitors implementation of the Covenant by its States parties. Its Optional Protocol entered into force in 2013. The human rights that the Covenant seeks to promote and protect include

• the right to work in just and favourable conditions;
• the right to social protection, to an adequate standard of living and to the highest attainable standards of physical and mental well-being;
• the right to education and the enjoyment of benefits of cultural freedom and scientific progress.

Civil and political rights

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights  and its  First Optional Protocol  entered into force in 1976 and the  Second Optional Protocol  came into force in 1991. The Human Rights Committee monitors the implementation of this multilateral treaty and its Optional Protocols.

The Covenant deals with such rights as freedom of movement; equality before the law; the right to a fair trial and presumption of innocence; freedom of thought, conscience and religion; freedom of opinion and expression; peaceful assembly; freedom of association; participation in public affairs and elections; and protection of minority rights. It prohibits arbitrary deprivation of life; torture, cruel or degrading treatment or punishment; slavery and forced labour; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary interference with privacy; war propaganda; discrimination; and advocacy of racial or religious hatred.

Human Rights Conventions

A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have expanded the body of international human rights law. They include the  Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948) , the  International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) , the  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) , the  Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)  and the  Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) , among others .

Human Rights Council

The Human Rights Council , established on 15 March 2006 by the General Assembly and reporting directly to it, replaced the 60-year-old  UN Commission on Human Rights  as the key UN intergovernmental body responsible for human rights. The Council is made up of 47 State representatives and is tasked with strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe by addressing situations of human rights violations and making recommendations on them, including responding to human rights emergencies

The most innovative feature of the Human Rights Council is the  Universal Periodic Review (UPR). This unique mechanism involves a review of the human rights records of all 193 UN member states once every four years. The Review is a cooperative, state-driven process, under the auspices of the Council, which provides the opportunity for each state to present measures taken and challenges to be met to improve the human rights situation in their country and to meet their international obligations

The Review is designed to ensure universality and equality of treatment for every country and takes place during the sessions of the UPR Working Group which meets three times a year. The UPR Working Group consists of the 47 members of the Council.

Special Procedures and Investigative Bodies

The Human Rights Council also has special procedures that consist of independent human rights experts who have the mandate to report and advise on human rights from a thematic or country-specific perspective. These experts are not paid and are elected for 3-year mandates that can be extended for another three years. As of November 2023, there are 46 thematic and 14 country mandates.

Since 2006, the Council has set up various investigative bodies to look into alleged violations in specific countries. These have taken the form of fact-finding missions and commissions of inquiry. In addition, there is one thematic body, the Expert Mechanism to Advance Racial Justice and Equality in Law Enforcement

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

The  United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights  exercises principal responsibility for UN human rights activities. The High Commissioner is mandated to respond to serious violations of human rights and to undertake preventive action.

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)  is the focal point for United Nations human rights activities. It serves as the secretariat for the Human Rights Council, the treaty bodies (expert committees that monitor treaty compliance) and other UN human rights organs. It also undertakes human rights field activities.

Most of the core human rights treaties have an oversight body which is responsible for reviewing the implementation of that treaty by the countries that have ratified it.  Individuals, whose rights have been violated can file complaints directly to Committees overseeing human rights treaties.

Human Rights and the UN System

Human rights is a cross-cutting theme in all UN policies and programmes in the key areas of peace and security, development, humanitarian assistance, and economic and social affairs. As a result, virtually every UN body and specialized agency is involved to some degree in the protection of human rights. Some examples are the  right to development , which is at the core of the  Sustainable Development Goals ; the right to food, championed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, labour rights , defined and protected by the International Labour Organization, gender equality, which is promulgated by UN Women, the rights of children, indigenous peoples, and disabled persons

Human Rights Day  is observed every year on 10 December.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights turns 75

On 10 December 2023, the UN System celebrated the 75th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The OHCHR conducted a year-long commemoration, the Human Rights Initiative , during which 150 Member States, NGOs, businesses and UN entities made pledges on a wide range of human rights issues - from advancing women’s rights, and children’s rights, to commitments on climate change, and empowering people with disabilities to ensure legislative reforms.

The three main goals focus of the initiative were focused in universality, progress and engagement under the leadership of UN Human Rights, together with its partners. The 75th Anniversary culminated in a high-level event in December 2023 that announced global pledges and ideas for a vision for the future of human rights.

• Status of Ratification of 18 International Human Rights Treaties
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5 Tips for Writing Your Human Rights Research Paper

If you are a human rights student, you will often be asked by your professors to do research on a certain human rights issue and write a research paper. Research papers are considered to be academic writings based on your original research, interpretation and commentary of other research findings. They are done in order to demonstrate your academic knowledge of a certain human rights issue and your acquisition of different research methodologies.

Also read: 10 Tips for conducting human rights research

Research papers on human rights can focus on any type of human right or a broad overview of human rights. For example, you can focus your research paper on the right to labor or do a research on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which includes 30 human rights.  This article offers five tips for writing your human rights research paper with an aim to assist you to keep good organization and focus.

Do you want to pursue a career in human rights?

Our eBook “ Launching Your Career in Human Rights ” is an in-depth resource designed for those committed to pursuing a career in the human rights field. It covers a wide range of topics, including the types of careers available, the necessary skills and competencies, and the educational pathways that can lead to success in this sector. Whether you’re considering a master’s degree, looking for your first job, or exploring specific human rights issues, this guide offers valuable insights and practical advice. It’s a helpful tool for anyone looking to understand the complexities of working in human rights and how to effectively navigate the challenges and opportunities that come with this important work. Learn more .

Step 1: Choose a Human Rights Topic

When writing a research paper the first thing you have to do is to choose a topic . So where can you get inspiration? A common tactic is to skim through thesis directories to discover topics or issues that spark your interest. Another option you can try, is to visit your favorite online magazine and look at the articles through a human rights lens. The fashion brand, where you buy your clothes, do they care about human rights? What are the human rights implications of the latest developments in artificial intelligence? What happens when you apply a human rights perspective to the netflix series you saw last week? Human rights are everywhere, and so are the topics for your research paper.

Step 2: Conduct Research

Once you have selected your topic, the next step is to conduct research. This can take various forms. Most students start with skim reading through the available literature. When you are searching an online library, make sure you also use synonyms and similar keywords in your search. It might be possible that your topic is well researched already but that most researchers choose a different term than the one you had in mind to describe the issue.

Look for articles and books that were written by human rights experts that deal with your chosen topic. Articles and books usually contain an empirical research that was already conducted within the field you are writing about. Once you find articles and books about your topic, check out the reference list or bibliography. The sources listed there can be a great tool for you to identify more suitable literature.

A great source for conducting research is the Internet, where you can find scholarly articles , books , journals, blog posts, encyclopedias and case directories . However, make sure you distinguish between invalid sources (i.e. Wikipedia, forums, etc.) and valid sources (i.e. scholarly article published by a university research center). Usually, your professor will outline and define what type of sources are acceptable to use in a research paper (i.e. scholarly articles, books, online journals, media articles etc.).

However, the most important is that information you find is trustworthy and based on facts. Academic publications often go through a rigorous quality assurance process and are thus considered more trustworthy than a message anyone can post on social media without much accountability. Your research paper should be based on at least five reliable sources.

Research traditions also vary in different universities and locations. At universities in Germany and Austria it is more common to reference twenty to fifty sources, even for a short research paper while in the UK less sources and more original writing is often state of the art. Make sure you discuss expectations with your professors especially if you are studying abroad and may be used to a different university system.

Citing well known authors and academics will make your research more reliable and your arguments well supported. It is a common best practice to summarize the key arguments of two or more authors and then, based on the research that has already been done, develop your own thoughts and conclusions around the topic. Once you have collected enough information on your topic, you can begin creating the outline of your research paper and developing your main argument.

Step 3 : Create an Outline

One of the most important steps in writing a research paper is creating a proper outline which will, later on, serve you as a guide and keep you on track. However, prior to creating an outline you should develop your research question and thesis statement which serve as a main idea and central point of your research paper. The arguments in your research paper should revolve around answering your research question ( Is murder a violation of the right to life? ) and testing your thesis statement ( Murder is not considered a violation of the right to life, but killings are considered a violation of the right to life ). The majority of your research paper will be based on arguments to verify or falsify your thesis statement based on facts and reliable sources.  

Once you defined your research question and thesis statement, you should be able to create an outline of your research paper which will help you organize your arguments. Creating an outline usually means organizing your thoughts into a linear structure with headings and subheadings presenting the main points of your argument.

Usually, a research paper, no matter what topic concerns, has the following structure:

• Title page (This includes the title, the author’s name, date, the university name and name of your professor)
• Abstract (This is a brief summary of your research paper with only main points outlined)
• Introduction (Introduction should contain your research question, thesis statement and brief background information on the topic with the main arguments presented)
• The main body (This part contains several sections in which you are going to summarize, analyze and present your literature findings and your arguments answering your research question and testing your thesis statement. In this part you are also going to explain how you have conducted your research and what research methodologies you used)
• Conclusion (In conclusion you should shortly summarize your main arguments and explain the significance of your research. In this part, you should outline whether or not your research question has been answered and if your thesis statement has been confirmed)
• Reference and Literature (In this section you will list all references and literature that you have used in your research paper)
• Appendix (This section is necessary only if you have any additional information to support your argument such as charts, tables or figures)

Step 4: Write the paper

Once you finished outlining your paper it is time to begin writing. When starting this process it can be helpful to skip the introduction and start with the main body text. Usually, introduction and conclusion are written last because only then you will have a clear picture of your research paper and will be able to summarize it more concretely without skipping the important points. During the writing process you will develop new ideas and thoughts and the paper might move in a different direction that you originally planned. That’s normal but you need to update all aspects of the paper accordingly to ensure everything is consistent.

While writing, organize your arguments into paragraphs in order to get a clear and concise line of arguments. During the writing stage you will consult the literature and information you collected during the phase of conducting a research. However, it is really important to pay attention to how you summarize your literature in order to avoid plagiarism. This means using someone else’s exact words and copying them into your own research paper. Plagiarism is absolutely unacceptable in any academic discipline and considered as a form of theft.

A common way to avoid plagiarism is to paraphrase a certain argument or a fact in your own words and add a footnote to the original source. If you want to use word to word quotes you must mark them with quotation marks. In addition, always make sure to cite at the end from which source the fact or information derived or came from.

When writing, you should always keep in mind that the main purpose behind writing a research paper is to present arguments supported by the evidence from research.

Step 5: Edit, Revise and Celebrate

After you finished writing your research paper it is important to edit and revise it. At this stage, put your paper away for some time to gain distance to your own writing before you come back and revise it. After a few days, you will be able to notice mistakes more clearly and see whether or not you have presented clear and concise arguments. During the edit phase you should check for typos and spelling mistakes and if language you have used is clear and concise. Also, you will be able to notice if there was repetition in some parts of the paper and repetitive words or phrases that could be replaced with synonyms to improve the style of your paper. Once you have handed in your paper, don’t forget to celebrate! One step closer to your human rights masters .

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About the author, ada hasanagic.

Ada Hasanagić is a human rights professional currently working as a researcher at the Delegation of the International Committee of the Red Cross in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Previously, Ada graduated with honors from the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology and the University of Buckingham in the fields of Political Science and International Relations. Also, she earned a master’s degree in Democracy and Human Rights from the University of Sarajevo and University of Bologna.

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This section lists selected resources and organizations that work on selected topics on human rights: women, migrants, civil rights, children, the disabled, and the prevention of torture and genocide.

The Rights of Women

Amnesty International: Women's Rights .  Portal for Women's Rights Issues from AI.

Contemporary Women's Issues .  Access to global information on women in over 190 countries from journals, newsletters, reports, pamphlets,  and guides covering gender-related issues.

GenderWatch .  International journals, magazines, newsletters, regional publications, special reports, and conference proceedings devoted to women's and gender issues.

Global Database on Violence Against Women .  Includes laws, policies, programs, institutional mechanisms, research, data, and country pages

Human Rights Watch - Rights of Women . Portal for Women's Rights Issues from HRW.

United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women.   UN body of  i ndependent experts that monitors implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

UN Women .  United Nations Agency devoted specifically to Women's Issues, including Human Rights.

Women's Human Rights Resources Database . Lists articles, documents and links  related to international women's rights law and Canadian women's rights law. 

Women's Studies International . Acces to women's studies, women's issues, and gender-focused books, book chapters, journal and magazine articles, dissertations, and reports from throughout the world.

Genocide and Torture

Bush Administration Torture Archives Documents highlighting abuse and torture of detainees in facilities such as Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib Prison.

Encyclopedia of genocide and crimes against humanity . Presents information on  acts that fall within the definitions developed for crimes under international law: war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity.

Genocide Watch . Coordinating organization for the International Campaign to End Genocide (ICEG), an international coalition of organizations dedicated to educating the public and policy makers about the causes, processes, and warning signs of genocide.

Prevent Genocide International . An education and action network dedicated to stopping genocide.

United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide.   Acts as a catalyst to raise awareness of the causes and dynamics of genocide, to alert relevant actors where there is a risk of genocide, and to advocate and mobilize for appropriate action.

Rights of the Disabled

ACLU Disability Rights . Section on ACLU web site dedicated to the rights of the disabled.

Disability Rights International .  Promotes the human rights and full participation of children & adults with disabilities worldwide.

Encyclopedia of Disability . Collects over one thousand entries that provide insight into international views, experiences, and expertise on the topic of disability

Human Rights Watch: Disability . HRW section on disability.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Disability . 

Civil Rights

Black Studies Center (BSC) . Cross-searchable gateway to Black Studies including scholarly essays, recent periodicals, historical newspaper articles, reference books, and more.

Civil Rights in the United States . Excellent guide from the University of Minnesota Law School.

Ethnic News Watch . Index of over 200 ethnic, minority, and native press publications, including news, culture, and history topics. Searchable in English and Spanish.

Civil Rights Digital Library.    Includes a digital video archive of historical news films of the Civil Rights Movement, a civil rights portal providing a  virtual library by connecting related digital collections, as well as stories, articles, and lesson plans.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute .  Papers of Martin Luther King, from Stanford University.

Southern Poverty Law Center . Advances justice for vulnerable members of society through advocacy, litigation, and education. Provides information on hate crimes throughout the United States

Television News of the Civil Rights Era .  "An archive containing film footage from the nightly news from two local television stations in Virginia. Included are clips of Martin Luther King, John F. Kennedy, Richard M. Nixon, the governors of the Commonwealth of Virginia.”

United Nations and Minority Rights .  UNHCR section devoted to Minority rights.

The Rights of the Child

Child Rights Information Network (CRIN)   Dedicated to changing how societies and governments view children and to making the enforcement of current human rights more inclusive of children.

European Commission: Rights of the Child .  European Union site with resources on the EU's work on the rights of the child.

State of the World's Children . UNICEF’s flagship publication that closely examines key issues affecting children. 

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) . Section on the Rights of the Child on the UNICEF web site.

United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child . Body of 18 Independent experts that monitors implementation of the UN  Convention on the Rights of the Child  by its State parties.  

Refugees and Migrants

Amnesty International - Migrants and Refugees . News and stories about AI's work with refugees.

Human Rights Watch - Migration . HRW topical section for Migration.

Migrant Rights International . NGO and federation of migrants’ and migrants’ rights organizations, trade unions and faith-based groups promoting and defending the human rights of migrants.

Migrant Rights.Org . Advocates to bring about a change in attitudes towards migrant workers with a focus on the Middle East.

United Nations Committee on Migrant Workers . Body of independent experts monitoring the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families by State parties.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . The United Nations Refugee agency - immense web site with facts, information, reports, and resources about global refugee issues including their search engine,  refworld .

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Mapping the main research themes in digital human resources

• Laura García-Fernández 1 ,
• Marta Ortiz-de-Urbina-Criado   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7527-6798 1 &
• María-José García-López 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1267 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Business and management
• Information systems and information technology

The COVID-19 pandemic sped up the digitalization process and revolutionized the world of the digital employee. And today, advances in artificial intelligence are having a major impact on the field of Digital HR. In that context, further literature review work is needed on the term Digital HR to complement previous studies and lay the foundation for more pioneering literature on this topic. Then, the aim of this paper is to provide a framework for organizing the main themes discussed in the pioneering literature on digital HR by answering the following research question: What is the knowledge structure of the research in the field of digital human resources? An adaptation of the PRISMA model is used to structure the research design. Applying a mixed methodology, this paper uses a bibliometric technique to identify the main topics studied in Digital HR. Subsequently, in-depth analysis and logical reasoning are applied and a model is proposed based on four questions (how, what, where, who) in order to understand and develop research on digital HR. The RQ4 Digital-HR model constitutes a useful tool in academic, practical, professional, and social contexts. It is worth highlighting the importance of the inclusion of artificial intelligence in the daily processes of a company, and therefore in the progress of the proposed research topic.

Introduction

The world is witnessing constant change due to digitalization and its effects on companies and their staff. The pandemic accelerated the adoption of digital technologies, which had an immense impact on all business sectors and brought about permanent changes in the workplace (Gkinko and Elbanna, 2023 ). Many organizations started working in hybrid mode, combining digital ways of working with the traditional ways of working prior to the pandemic. Moreover, the use of digital technologies and the acceptance of more agile and flexible procedures and rules have changed the way in which work is being done (Mićić and Mastilo, 2022 ).

In general, our daily lives have been altered by technological advances, one of the most innovative being the advances in artificial intelligence, which is transforming the way people carry out their daily activities of work, communication, and decision making (Duke, 2022 ). The concept of artificial intelligence seems to be relatively recent, and in many cases, its true meaning or significance is unclear. However, it was not until the 2010s that the AI paradigm was reconfigured to be based on the classification and storage of massive data (Cetindamar et al. 2024 ).

Human resource management has evolved over time. Twenty-five years ago, its main focus was on implementing practices that promoted the development of organizations. However, the need for organizations to adapt to more competitive environments has forced businesses to adjust the traditional business management model, moving from strategic management to a more sustainable management approach (Villajos et al. 2019 ). One of the main factors influencing the adaptation of human resources management to the new sustainable management model has been digitalization (Le et al. 2024 ). Through digitalization, all employees, professionals, managers and business leaders, who are key to making the necessary changes to increase workplace productivity, can see their tasks facilitated through this phenomenon. In this context, human resources management develops practices that promote the welfare of the employee and the company (Le et al. 2024 ). Thus, in recent years, and especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, Digital Human Resources (Digital HR) has received a great deal of attention, particularly regarding Digital Employees and Digital Leaders. Advances in artificial intelligence are having a major impact on the field of Digital HR (Gkinko and Elbanna, 2023 ). Although there are still few publications on the acceptance of the effects of AI on workers and how the current increase in the use of digital technologies affects the skills and expectations of the digital workforce (Alan, 2023 ; Cetindamar et al. 2024 ).

In the academic context, there has been a surge in the literature on Digital HR. However, literature review studies on this topic are lacking, with most of them focusing on analyzing the digital workplace phenomenon (De Moraes et al. 2024 ; Marsh et al. 2022 ; Mićić and Mastilo, 2022 ), digital employee experience (Moganadas and Goh, 2022 ), and workforce training in digital workplaces (Patino and Naffi, 2023 ). Only two reviews address the issue of Digital HR more generally. Theres and Strohmeier ( 2023 ) conducted a meta-analysis to analyze theories applied in research on Digital HRM adoption and proposed a unified theory. Alan ( 2023 ) performed a co-word analysis, considering Electronic Human Resources Management (e-HRM) as the main term, and analyzed previous literature found in the Web of Science (WoS) for the period of 2012–2022.

Thus, further literature review work is needed on the term Digital HR that analyzes the literature published before and during the pandemic to complement previous studies and lay the foundation for more pioneering literature on this topic. The interest in analyzing changes during the pandemic is motivated by the fact that adapting to the new context requires new human resources actions that are closely related to the phenomenon of digitalization. Digital HR is a constantly evolving topic, and pioneering studies are fundamental to understanding this new phenomenon. Today, there is also the challenge of appropriately and ethically adopting artificial intelligence in the context of human resources (Cetindamar et al. 2024 ; Gkinko and Elbanna, 2023 ). In the face of a novel topic, it is important to gain an overview of the aspects studied, to understand the changes that have occurred around the pandemic, and to provide a logical framework of analysis by which to explore such phenomena.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the pioneering research landscape in the field of digital HR, filling in some of the existing research gaps. As a complement to Alan’s ( 2023 ) work, this research will focus on the topic of ‘digital HR’ and conduct a co-word analysis to identify the main themes studied. Moreover, a second step, which is not usually included in previous literature reviews on this topic, will be carried out to detect the applications of digital human resources. To this end, a model based on questions (how, what, where, who) is proposed to facilitate the understanding and development of digital HR research.

Thus, the aim of this study is to provide a framework for the organization of the main themes that are discussed in the pioneering literature on Digital HR. The research question addressed is What is the knowledge structure of the research in the field of digital human resources? To answer this question, the Background section is developed and a mixed methodology is applied, adapting the PRISMA process. A bibliometric technique is used to identify the main topics studied in Digital HR. Subsequently, in-depth analysis and logical reasoning are applied to propose a model and some lines of future research. Finally, the Conclusion section contains theoretical and practical implications, the study limitations, and future lines of research.

This paper is an original contribution. Literature reviews, and more on rapidly developing novel topics, play an important role in advancing research as they help to synthesize and organize existing knowledge and identify areas or topics for future research. This article proposes an integrative review (Patriotta, 2020 ) that offers another voice to guide and write new articles on digital human resources. Authors such as Post et al. ( 2020 ) have also highlighted the importance of literature reviews as they can serve several purposes such as helping researchers understand the research topic, discerning important and under-examined areas and connecting research findings from disparate sources to create new perspectives and phenomena. Moreover, the topic “Digital HR” calls for looking for models that help connect academic research with the business world. As Markman ( 2022 ) proclaims, academia is challenged to develop research that addresses current problems affecting people, business and society to make the world a better place. In that line, the RQ4 Digital-HR model constitutes a useful tool for academic, practical, professional, and social contexts.

The global pandemic has accelerated digital transformation in every sense, and the rise of digital technology in the workplace is unstoppable (Kalischko and Riedl, 2021 ). Technology plays a vital role in our day-to-day lives. Digitization has arrived, yet what that means or entails at a work and/personal level remains unclear. According to Kraus et al. ( 2022 ), it is necessary to have a fundamental understanding of literature reviews as independent studies. Therefore, the key texts must be identified that lay the foundations of Digital Human Resources Management (Digital HRM) before undertaking a bibliometric study.

Main concepts

Few papers over the last decades have provided a clear, agreed-upon definition of the term “Digital Human Resources Management” that is shared by the scientific community. Most papers have only superficially addressed the whole social and economic context that affects the new confection of digital employee models. Moreover, papers have tended to narrow their focus to a specific aspect of human resources management (Alan, 2023 ; Costa et al. 2022 ), digital employee experience (Moganadas and Goh, 2022 ), and job performance (Kalischko and Riedl, 2021 ; Marsh et al. 2022 ), analyzing the situation individually and rather than as a whole. Therefore, the starting point for this study is to introduce some of the terms or concepts commonly used in previous literature on digital HR. Two widely used terms are “digital worker” and “digital employee”. A key resource in any company is the employee, the one who can contribute to superior and solid performance over time (Moganadas and Goh, 2022 ). For example, Fuchs ( 2014 ) defines digital employees as the workforce required for the existence, use, and application of digital media. Other studies define digital employees as those employees whose work is performed primarily using digital resources (Nelson, 2018 ). IBM ( 2024 ) states that “in the past, the term ‘digital worker’ described a human employee with digital skills, but more recently, the market has defined it as a category of software robots, which are trained to perform specific tasks or processes in partnership with their human colleagues.”

Another concept used is “digital workplace.” As management has adapted to new technologies, the workplace has also had to adapt. This new leadership style brings with it concepts such as flexibility, which in this context refers to the non-limitation of the workspace to a specific physical location. This new digital workplace refers to the set of technologies that employees use to perform their functions (Marsh, 2018 ) and includes, among others, the intranet, communication tools, e-mail, CRM, etc. It also refers to a set of procedures and rules that maximize productivity and improve collaboration, communication, and knowledge management (Mićić et al. 2022 ). Some researchers use the term “digital labor”, which initially referred to the unpaid work performed by consumers online during leisure time. However, this term is now used to describe all work in which digital technology plays a role (Jarrett, 2022 ). The term has also been used to describe employees who work independently, receiving low wages and no social security, in business models supported by digital platforms, such as Uber (Fumagalli et al. 2018 ), or to describe the workforce that uses other business models that are also based on digital platforms, such as Facebook or Google, and that capture information to transform it into big data (Fuchs and Sevignani, 2013 ).

In that context, another important concept is digital platform. Digital platforms are transforming almost every industry today (Reuver et al. 2018 ). They are continuously evolving and becoming increasingly complex. These digital platforms are the ones that facilitate online communities of consumers (Reuver et al. 2018 ). While there are several definitions of digital platforms that refer to the codes, software, and hardware of which they are composed, for this study the most suitable definition of digital platform would be the environment in which companies combine all the information available from their stakeholders to generate or co-create value (Karhu et al. 2018 ). According to Murati ( 2021 ), a digital platform is an open infrastructure that exercises a facilitator role or a high level of control and influence over providers and users.

The meeting point of each one of these concepts is the term Human Resource Management, which is understood as the processes that involve activities from recruitment to salary management and that are carried out simultaneously (Alan, 2023 ). All of these processes have been equipped with more technology and innovative methods over time. Thus, the concept has evolved to Digital Human Resource Management (HRM), understood as the set of software, hardware, and digital resources designed to automate the HR function (Jani et al. 2021 ; Marler and Parry, 2016 ), or in other words, to develop consistent, efficient and high-quality HR practices through the use of digital transformation and new technologies (Bondarouk and Brewster, 2016 ).

Previous literature reviews

Previous literature reviews established a set of definitions that, despite using common concepts, have left nuances that have yet to be fully addressed in subsequent works. Most of the work that reviews previous literature has focused on studying digital workplaces. Mićić and Mastilo ( 2022 ) conducted a systematic literature review on the digital transformation of the workplace and employees’ workplace preferences. The search terms used were “digital workplace”, “COVID-19”, and “innovation”, and the search was limited to English language papers published after 2010. The benefits of digital workplace transformation are analyzed and the critical success factors and significant challenges are identified.

Marsh et al. ( 2022 ) studied the application of digital technologies in the workplace with a particular focus on their dark side. They conducted an integrative literature review and limited the search to papers published between January 2007 and June 2020 that were written in English and carried out in Western countries only (in the United States, Europe, Canada, Australia, Latin America, and New Zealand). De Moraes et al. ( 2024 ) conducted a systematic review of the literature on the design of digital workplaces. Their main results include a definition of digital workplace and a four-phase model with guidelines for designing digital workplaces. Patino and Naffi ( 2023 ) conducted a systematic review of training approaches and resources for workforce development in digital workplaces. Using the PRISMA model, they analyzed articles published between 2020 and 2022. Their paper offers research-based perspectives and recommendations for employee training in highly digitalized workplaces.

Another aspect that has been studied is the experience of the digital worker. Moganadas and Goh ( 2022 ) discuss the concept of digital employee experience (DEX). They conducted a comprehensive literature review on DEX by analyzing the content of academic publications and professional reports. They used the Scopus and Google Scholar databases to identify “DEX” or “digital employee experience” in their title, abstract, and keywords and found 17 articles between 2016 and 2022. To complement these papers, they included grey literature to identify studies that addressed a similar topic, such as digital transformation, digital workplace, and employee experience.

Finally, a few papers have reviewed the literature on human resource management in a digital environment. Theres and Strohmeier ( 2023 ) analyzed the phenomenon of digital HRM. In their paper, they present an overview of the theories applied in digital HRM adoption research and propose a unified theory. To test their theory, they performed a combination of meta-analysis and structural equation modelling. Alan ( 2023 ) presented a systematic bibliometric analysis of electronic human resource management (e-HRM) by conducting a literature search in the Web of Science (WoS) for the period of 2012–2022.

Methodology

Figure 1 presents the methodological process used in this study. The methodological design used includes two parts. In the first, a multi-step process has been followed to perform the bibliometric analysis: sample selection, filtering of documents and keywords, and co-word analysis. In the second, a reflexive analysis was carried out. To facilitate the understanding of the process followed, the PRISMA 2020 statement has been adapted, which has been designed primarily for systematic reviews of studies (Moher et al. 2010 ; Page et al. 2021 ). The adaptation of the PRISMA process provides a more transparent view of the methodology used and the analyses carried out.

Own elaboration based on the PRISMA model.

The Scopus database was used. There is an open debate regarding whether Scopus or WoS is superior. Both have advantages and disadvantages (Stahlschmidt and Stephen, 2020 ). The Scopus database was chosen for this paper because it offered a larger sample of documents than did WoS. Although the research on Digital HR began over 35 years ago, most of the articles have been published in the last three years, demonstrating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on this topic. Until the year 2016, contributions were sporadic, and it is not until a year later, in 2017, that the research begins to approach 25 articles per year. Of the total of articles (347), 56% (196) were published between 2020 and 2022, with 2021 being the most important year, when a total of 82 articles (25%) were published.

A co-word analysis in conjunction with the SciMat program was used to identify the various themes covered in the literature on Digital HR (Cobo et al. 2012 ). Of the many tools that enable co-word analysis, SciMat was chosen for its ability to carry out the analysis with simplicity and rigor. Moral-Muñoz et al. ( 2019 ; 2020 ) describe the various tools that are available for bibliometric analysis and comment on SciMat as being a valid tool for co-word analysis. SciMat was suitable for achieving the objective of this paper because it analyzes the keywords of selected articles and calculates the strategic diagrams and networks for each thematic group. Moreover, SciMat incorporates all the necessary elements (methods, algorithms, and measurements) for performing a co-word analysis and obtaining its visualizations (Cobo et al. 2012 ).

Regarding the strategic diagram, centrality and density are calculated for each thematic group (Cobo et al. 2018 ). Centrality is a measure of the importance of a theme in the development of a field of knowledge. Density reflects the strength of a network’s internal relationships, thus identifying the level of development of that theme. The strategic diagram classifies the themes into four groups (Cobo et al. 2018 ). In the upper-right quadrant are the motor themes, which comprise themes that have strong centrality and high density. In the upper-left quadrant are the well-developed and/or isolated themes. The themes in the lower-left quadrant are presented as emerging or disappearing themes, while in the lower-right quadrant are themes that are considered basic and transversal themes.

This section presents the results of the co-word analysis. The bibliometric technique is suitable for identifying the knowledge structure of a research topic. Given the volume of articles published between 2020 and 2022, two periods of analysis were carried out to compare the networks that emerged prior to and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Figure 2 shows the evolution of all the topics mentioned, their typology, and how, depending on the period, they transform into a new topic.

Results from SciMat, diagram composed of themes by number of documents for all the periods.

Table 1 presents the evolution that Digital HR research has experienced during these years.

Main themes studied in Digital HR

Regarding the total period (1984–2022), previous research focused on “digital workplace” and “digital platform” and “digital employee” as the motor themes. “Digital labor” appears as an emerging topic and as something remarkable. Despite not being connected to the human resources area, this entire digitization process is linked to the topic “enterprise bots”, a concept that had previously been highly developed in scientific fields. During the pre-COVID period (1984–2019), the motor theme was the “digital workplace”. During the COVID period (2020–2022), the motor themes were “digital employee” and “digital workplace”. Lastly, the emerging theme for all the periods is “digital labor”.

During the first period (1984–2019), only one theme, “digital workplace”, is positioned as a motor theme. It makes sense that after the 4 th industrial revolution, developed between 1950 and 1970, a study period would begin regarding how this digitization has affected the workspaces as well as how to continue innovating and improving them. Companies have needed workplaces to be transformed from a traditional perspective to a digital one (Colbert et al. 2016 ; Kaarst-Brown et al. 2018 ), since this change is key to organizational success (Colbert et al. 2016 , Köffer, 2015 ).

In the 2020–2022 period, two additional topics to those appearing in the previous period emerge. These are “digital employee” and “digital labor”, positioned as a motor and an emerging theme, respectively. These topics correlate with what occurred during the pandemic, which forced the digitalization of all types of situations. As a result, the research on this area has focused on the employee and, above all, the digitization of work that, as mentioned, appears as an emerging topic.

Based on these results and for the completion of the analyses, a manually and logical regrouping of themes was conducted in the SciMat program, and another strategic diagram was identified. Figure 3 , which presents the strategic diagram obtained from this new analysis, shows that the motor themes are “digital platform” and “workplace”. “Manufacturing”, “digital employee”, and “social media” are well-developed themes. “Digital”, “learning”, and “labor” are positioned as basic themes. Finally, the emerging theme is “artificial intelligence”. A logical knowledge structure of the study topics can be observed. On the one hand, what emerges are the themes related to the more digital aspect of work, namely “digital”, “digital platform”, and “digital employee”. On the other hand, there are items that refer to the more physical aspect, “labor” and “workplace”. Tangential to the most digital aspect linked to work is the communication channel or media used at work, “social media”. In turn, in the main sector where the research is applied or where the literature has further explored these issues, the theme of “manufacturing” is also well defined.

Results from SciMat, diagram composed of themes by a number of documents for all the periods.

Also evident in the diagram is the channel through which employees can progress in the work environment, through “learning”, a Human Resources practice that has been developed for some time but has become more crucial in recent years. Learning is the key to employees acquiring digital competencies and feeling comfortable in digital work environments. Finally, as an emerging topic, is everything related to “artificial intelligence”. This topic, of relatively recent creation, has all the works published in the year 2022 or later, and is creating a highly critical space in the business environment, and in this particular case, in everything related to Human Resources and how to implement it in departmental processes.

Thematic networks in Digital HR

It is interesting to know the thematic networks in which the most significant keyword (the one with the highest centrality) is placed at the center. The size of each node represents the number of documents containing that word, and the thickness of the line indicates the strength of the association between those topics.

Digital platform

Analysis of the “Digital Platform” subnetwork (Fig. 4 ) for the period 1984–2022, reveals four documents and a wide network of terms that correlate with each other. The most notable relationships are those related to health care. However, within our scope, there are several studies that focus on the use of digital platforms as a means of offering work in the “gig economy.” Taylor et al. ( 2017 ) define the concept of Gig Economy as the use of applications or platforms for work.

Results from SciMat cluster network for the digital platform.

The analysis also revealed the importance of collaborative work for the improvement of digital platforms, as shown through the connections between the terms “collaborative designs” and “co-creation”. The research also showed two important advances in what has been studied in recent years: the flexibility that this type of work facilitates (Soriano and Cabanes, 2020 ) and how these new jobs can change the lifestyle of digital employees (Graham et al. 2017 ).

Digital workplace

The “Digital workplace” network (Fig. 5 ) for the period 1984–2022 includes six documents and shows that the most important keywords in the cluster are “digital transformation” and “artificial intelligence”. Again, it is crucial for this network to talk about “collaboration”, as well as “cross-functional teams” and their “dynamic capabilities” that play a special role in developing the digital workplace. As Selimović et al. ( 2021 ) posit, the inclusion of the employee in the decisions on digital transformation is a key to its success. Moreover, the use of artificial intelligence, through the “chatbots” makes improvement in the workplace possible (Cetindamar et al. 2024 ). In both cases, the focus is placed on the inclusion of the employee as a key part of these processes. This demonstrates a strong relationship between digital and emotions in the cluster, since understanding how the use of technology affects employees’ emotions (Gkinko and Elbanna, 2022 ) is one of the most relevant topics in the current research.

Results from SciMat cluster network for the digital workplace.

The analysis of the “Digital workplace” network (Fig. 6 ) for the period 1984–2019, which contains 15 documents, reveals the strong presence of terms related to a collaborative work environment, such as “collaboration”, “cloud”, “cloud computing”; or even advancing further in the collaboration itself, it becomes necessary to talk about “digital platforms” or “crowdsourcing”, as means for it, being the key tools for developing the digital workplace (White, 2012 ; Attaran et al. 2019 ). Indeed, the most remarkable aspect of the network is the strong connection between “cloud computing” and “mobile working”. It must be considered that during these years, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the now-standardized option of mobile working was merely a practice applied by a few companies. Thus, it makes sense that during these years of strong digitization, research focuses on it. There is also one term, “artificial intelligence” (here also mentioned as “social software”), that researchers start to investigate during these years, since its use in the digital workplace is continuing to increase (Martensen et al. 2016 ) and, as could be seen throughout the paper, it will also become of vast importance for other networks.

For the last years (2020–2022), “Digital workplace” network (Fig. 6 ) contains the highest number of documents (16) and shows two remarkable themes “digital transformation” and “artificial intelligence”. In the figure can be seen a triangle formed by “emotions”, “emotions at work”, and “chatbot”, as employee users experience a connection emotion when using artificial intelligence (Gkinko and Elbanna, 2022 ), and there is an effort to understand how employees will accept these new systems in the enterprise context (Brachten et al. 2021 ). Moreover, in these recent years, the changes that companies must make to achieve the digitalization of the workplaces takes on a special relevance. Thus, it is not surprising that the investigation is linked to “organizational change” and “technology-adoption”. It should not be overlooked that none of these changes would be possible without including the “employees” in said decisions (Cetindamar et al. 2024 ).

There is a topic that remains throughout the analysis: “artificial intelligence” (Fig. 6 ). However, there is a positive evolution between the topics analyzed prior to the pandemic and those analyzed after it. In the first period (1984–2022), the topics were focused on how the workplace should be or what it should contain and how it should be digitized, as well as on platforms and software and everything related to the cloud. However, during the pandemic period, some changes were perceived, with the introduction of themes arising from having been forced to implement the digital work modality. These topics include technostress, emotions, and employees, as well as everything related to organizational change.

Digital employee

The “Digital employee” network (Fig. 7 ) for the period 1984–2022 contains 10 documents and shows, as previously mentioned, the relevance of the pandemic in this research. In this sense, it is crucial to understand how this situation affected the employee, the work itself, and the life experience of employees (Muszyński et al. 2021 ). Above all, it shows a strong connection between the concepts related to “Robotic Process Automation” (RPA), “digital automation process”, and “software robot”, as a means to increasing productivity in a company, leaving the routine tasks to RPA and assigning employees to perform more difficult tasks (Choi et al. 2021 ). Clearly, it is crucial to talk about the “digital competencies” that employees have or need to acquire to be included in the “new work” that globalization is forcing us to implement.

Results from SciMat cluster network for digital employees.

The “Digital employee” network, for the last years (2020–2022) (Fig. 7 ), with eight documents, shows that there have been no changes in recent years compared to what was already being studied. The only difference is that the research in these years does not focus on the new types of work, implemented post-pandemic, but studies how to improve the implementation of RPA (Costa et al. 2022 ) to achieve better economic results and an improved digital employee experience.

Digital labor

The “Digital labor” network (Fig. 8 ) for the years 1984–2022, contains nine documents and shows a star-shaped network characterized by the presence of keywords that only correlate with the cluster topic. The main theme of the cluster is the work itself with its main versions, with research on the best type of work being very common (Babapour Chafi et al. 2022 ): office work or digital work (commonly called digital nomadism). There is also an important connection with the information society.

Results from SciMat cluster network for digital labor.

“Digital Labor”, for the last years (2020–2022), provides six documents (Fig. 8 ). Studies related to the “gig economy” and the types of jobs related to digital platforms proliferate during this period. In addition, once the pandemic period was over, it was expected that employees would return to office work. Thus, there arises a need to understand which work model (remote, face-to-face, or hybrid) is more productive and which is more valued by the employee (Babapour Chafi et al. 2022 ).

A comparison of studies prior to the pandemic with those of recent years reveals that initially there were several issues related to digital work, whereas in recent years these have been reduced to two issues: office work or work through digital platforms.

Enterprise bots

The “Enterprise bots” network for the period 1984–2022 (Fig. 9 ) contains two documents that co-relate two concepts, virtual assistants and virtual agents, as being crucial to understanding the differences between them, and above all, to understanding the differences in use between the individual and the business context (Stieglitz et al. 2018 ). The focus was therefore on teaching an employer how to effectively introduce these systems in the company (Brachten et al. 2021 ).

Results from SciMat cluster network for enterprise bots.

The results of this study complement those of previous literature review studies. Alan ( 2023 ) focused on the term Electronic Human Resources Management (e-HRM) and conducted a review of the literature included in WoS from 2012 to 2022. Our study focused on the term “digital human resources” and used the Scopus database. Our study also included pioneering literature up to 2022 and an analysis of the differences between the pre-pandemic period (1984 to 2019) and the peak years of the pandemic (2020–2022).

Alan ( 2023 ) categorizes the research on this topic into three groups: the theoretical studies and theories used in the studies reviewed, empirical qualitative studies, and empirical quantitative studies. Alan ( 2023 ) presents summary tables for each category that include following information: related theoretical framework, related terms, studies, typology of study, aim of the study, and the main findings and propositions. In a complementary way, this current paper presents the studied themes and classifies them into four groups according to the strategic diagram and analyses the networks for each thematic group. Additionally, based on the results obtained in the previous section, a process of analysis and reflection was carried out to establish the roadmap of topics studied and to define the emerging and future topics. Four main research questions (how, what, where, who) are considered to propose a model (Fig. 10 ).

Own elaboration.

The RQ4 Digital-HR model presents four fundamental questions for understanding and developing research on digital HR -Research Questions for Digital HR.

The basis of the proposed model (Fig. 10 ) refers to “where” to apply it. The results of the analysis show that there is a sector where deep research on the subject has already been carried out, the manufacturing sector. However, the research should not stop there. Future research should take this model to other sectors of much greater complexity and scope, such as the service sector.

The pillars that support the model, “the what,” are on two levels: the advances in the digitalization of work on the one hand and, on the other hand, all the learning that a company can guarantee to its employees and that employees are able to assimilate. Clearly, the cross-cutting issue, “the who,” is the digital employee, the workforce member that drives the change, the one who is able to implement any Human Resources practice, and therefore the one who is able to assimilate business-driven change.

The roof of the model is “the how.” The implementation of all the changes we are forced to make is only possible through the implementation and improvement of three items in our daily processes: firstly, the digital platforms that we use every day at work, secondly, the management of information through the channels provided by the company, and thirdly—and most importantly—the inclusion of artificial intelligence in all our processes, as a means of improving productivity. This technology is transforming, and revolutionizing, the future of workspaces to make them more productive (Gkinko and Elbanna 2022 ), but again studies on the subject do not address how to accomplish this. Most of the texts reviewed on the subject focus on investigating some aspect of the implementation of artificial intelligence systems and their errors (Costa et al. 2022 ) or on employees’ acceptance of or trust in such technology (Gkinko and Elbanna, 2023 ). However, the work of Gkinko and Elbanna ( 2022 ) offers a starting point for how to incorporate this technology into a company, since the emotions of employees need to be taken into account when such tools are being created in order to facilitate their inclusion in day-to-day activities.

This makes it vital to focus the research on Digital HR, which requires researchers to collaborate to determine the what, where, how, and who. Based on the questions in the model, a further step has been taken to identify the aspects that would be interesting to analyze in future work to answer each of these fundamental questions.

WHAT: In reference to this, it is important to discover what digital processes should be introduced in our daily lives, what learning tools will help us to channel digitization, and what new labor trends can be found in the post-COVID stage.

WHERE: Future research should focus on analyzing what kind of workspaces exist in the labor market. This first line of research will undoubtedly lead towards the different sectors of activity, so it is also important to see what we know about the different sectors and their relationship with Digital HR, especially in the service sector, since globally it is the most present sector of activity.

HOW: Research should continue to determine how to do this and, as broken down in the table, it is important to address how to adopt digital platforms in the work environment, how to adapt existing social networks to the business context, and how to apply new artificial intelligence models.

WHO: As mentioned in this paper, digital HR is a transversal entity in all these lines of research. However, it is not left out of the future lines of research since it is essential to understand who this digital HR includes.

Finally, based on the results of this study (thematic groups) and the proposed model (questions), Table 2 presents a proposal for future research lines and questions.

The proposed model revolves around four fundamental research questions (Fig. 10 ). The importance of researchers developing the ability to formulate questions has an epistemological background expressed by Bachelard ( 1982 , p. 16) as ‘for a scientific spirit all knowledge is an answer to a question. If there was no question, there can be no scientific knowledge’. It should be noted that the quality of the questions asked is closely related to the prior knowledge they have about a given topic (Neber and Anton, 2008 ). Systematic questioning about different phenomena fosters meaningful learning by drawing on prior knowledge in a non-arbitrary and non-literal way (Moreira, 2000 ). Furthermore, knowing the background of a subject facilitates scientific modelling, an activity inherent to science, which can be understood as a process of constructing models for the purpose of apprehending reality (Giere, 1988 ) and providing answers to questions formulated about real facts or assumptions (Halloun, 1996 ). The model presented in Fig. 10 and developed in Table 2 , helps to logically order the themes studied in the previous literature and to propose emerging and current themes of great interest for the development of the literature on digital HR.

In addition, the model helps to sort out what company should focus on meeting the needs of its employees without leaving its own needs behind, first the basis, then the pillars and finally the roof. In this regard, it is important to start managing the workers’ workplaces to adapt them to the environment. Subsequently, the training needs of employees must be addressed, along with the necessary adaptations to enable them to function digitally. Thirdly, companies must develop internal and external communication systems that allow them to be in contact with all their stakeholders. Only having developed these points will be able to focus on meeting current social demands and introducing artificial intelligence in their daily work.

Therefore, if companies’ human resources departments understand this model and its order, will be able to act effectively and thus be more ethical and sustainable. On the other hand, acting in an inverted order will leave some of the pillars of the Triple Bottom Line uncovered, with the risks that this entails. The Triple Bottom Line (triple P´s) model is a model that calls for corporate commitment to measure its social (Person), environmental (Planet), and financial (Profit) impact. This is why it becomes necessary to have a human resources management model adapted to the current and changing context of the organization (Kramar, 2014 ).

In turn, for the employee, the implementation of a model will help them to prioritize their needs to be covered by the company so that, once managed, they can lead to a higher and better performance and thus achieve a high level of well-being at work. Ruiz-Palomino et al. ( 2019 ) explain that a good way to improve a company productivity is to promote corporate wellness and entrepreneurship.

Conclusions

This paper has answered the question What is the knowledge structure of pioneering research in the field of digital human resources? A mixed methodology was used to identify the main topics studied in Digital HR and to propose a model and some future research lines and questions.

This article presents an integrative review to generate ordered knowledge spaces, which as Patriotta ( 2020 ) explains serves to ‘put boundaries around an existing area of research in order to provide an organized sample of what is available and build a platform for future research’ (p. 1274).

Implications

Theoretical implications.

In terms of theoretical implications, this paper highlights the interest of extending current research to concretely define what the digitalization of work means as well as its implications and requirements. This will enable the discovery or even the proposal of new digital work models, incorporating those positions redefined as a result of the incorporation of artificial intelligence and thus make it possible to delimit digital HR. On the other hand, it is noted that the incorporation of new trends in the market must be reflected in the teaching/learning methods to achieve greater professionalization. In turn, a company will become the protagonist in designing these new training processes that are linked to its specific professional activity and the profile of its employees. On the other hand, emphasis can be placed on studying how to increase productivity through the application of artificial intelligence in routine tasks.

In addition, based on the proposed model, an expansion of research on Digital HR human resources is proposed, incorporating new lines and research questions, which will lead to a new categorization of workplaces according to their capacity to adopt digital models. This will lay the foundation for a new labor framework and the development of innovative capabilities in this regard. This broadening of research can be related to the development of thematic lines and professional sectors, especially in the service sector, thus accommodating the most important sector for the European economy. Future research can consider the development of new TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) models to measure the adoption of digital technologies in digital work environments. Social networks used in the work environment can also be investigated to detect those that best help to channel the processes of labor digitalization.

Practical implications

In terms of practical implications, the results obtained and the proposed model can be used to encourage the application of new technologies in the work environment; guarantee employees digital learning processes to increase productivity, facilitating this new learning process; and create policies and standards that include artificial intelligence and social networks in the business environment, thus standardizing their proper use to generate greater productivity and economic results. New and innovative workspaces can also be developed in order to integrate the improvements derived from digitalization and artificial intelligence. Information channels can also be developed to connect the new processes with stakeholders and adapt the work activity to the new demand of employees and the market, thus including, from its conception, digital natives in the entire process.

Social Implications

The results also have social implications. In this sense, the study of the digitization of human resources helps to adapt the usual performance of employees to the inclusion of new technologies in the business environment and to involve employees in training processes to promote professional and labor development. In turn, it can be used to involve employees in the development of new workspaces to maximize productivity, for the implementation of new work models designed by the company and the use of social networks as a means of labor communication. As a corollary, artificial intelligence can be considered as a tool to improve productivity, reducing the volume of monotonous or routine tasks and reinforcing those in which only the employee can provide real value.

Limitations and future research lines

The authors acknowledge the limitations of the methodology used in this study and call for further research to expand our understanding of the topic. Future studies could complement the co-word analysis with other bibliometric techniques such as co-citation analysis and develop theoretical and empirical models on the applications of digital human resources.

Data availability

Documents that support the findings of this study can be consulted in the Scopus database by following the search procedure indicated in the methodology section.

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Acknowledgements

This paper has been supported by Project PID2021-124641NB-I00 of the Ministry of Science and Innovation (Spain) and by research group in Open Innovation, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain). Open Access funding enabled and organized by Project V1313 “Sustainability Support”, signed under Article 60 of the LOSU between the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain) and the company Triple Sustainability SLU to carry out scientific-technical work and training activities.

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García-Fernández, L., Ortiz-de-Urbina-Criado, M. & García-López, MJ. Mapping the main research themes in digital human resources. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1267 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03795-8

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