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What Changes to the U.S. Education System Are Needed to Support Long-Term Success for All Americans?

With the pandemic deepening inequities that threaten students’ prospects, the vice president of the Corporation’s National Program provides a vision for transforming our education system from one characterized by uneven and unjust results to one that puts all students on a path to bright futures 

At no point in our nation’s history have we asked so much of our education system as we do today. We ask that our primary and secondary schools prepare all students, regardless of background, for a lifetime of learning. We ask that teachers guide every child toward deeper understanding while simultaneously attending to their social-emotional development. And we ask that our institutions of higher learning serve students with a far broader range of life circumstances than ever before.

We ask these things of education because the future we aspire to requires it. The nature of work and civic participation is evolving at an unprecedented rate. Advances in automation, artificial intelligence, and social media are driving rapid changes in how we interact with each other and what skills hold value. In the world our children will inherit, their ability to adapt, think critically, and work effectively with others will be essential for both their own success and the well-being of society.

At Carnegie Corporation of New York, we focus on supporting people who are in a position to meet this challenge. That includes the full spectrum of educators, administrators, family members, and others who shape young people’s learning experiences as they progress toward and into adulthood. Our mission is to empower all students with the tools, systems, knowledge, and mindsets to prepare them to fully participate in the global economy and in a robust democracy.

All of our work is geared toward transforming student learning. The knowledge, skills, and dispositions required for success today call for a vastly different set of learning experiences than may have sufficed in the past. Students must play a more active role in their own learning, and that learning must encompass more than subject-matter knowledge. Preparing all children for success requires greater attention to inclusiveness in the classroom, differentiation in teaching and learning, and universal high expectations.

This transformation needs to happen in higher education as well. A high school education is no longer enough to ensure financial security. We need more high-quality postsecondary options, better guidance for students as they transition beyond high school, and sufficient supports to enable all students to complete their postsecondary programs. Preparing students for lifelong success requires stronger connections between K–12, higher education, and work.

The need for such transformation has become all the more urgent in the face of COVID-19. As with past economic crises, the downturn resulting from the pandemic is likely to accelerate the erosion of opportunities for low-skilled workers with only a high school education. Investments in innovative learning models and student supports are critical to preventing further inequities in learning outcomes. 

An Urgent Call for Advancing Equity 

The 2020–21 school year may prove to be the most consequential in American history. With unfathomable speed, COVID-19 has forced more change in how schools operate than in the previous half century.

What is most concerning in all of this is the impact on the most underserved and historically marginalized in our society: low-income children and students of color. Even before the current crisis, the future prospects of a young person today looked very different depending on the color of her skin and the zip code in which she grew up, but the pandemic exposed and exacerbated long-standing racial and economic inequities. And the same families who are faring worst in terms of disrupted schooling are bearing the brunt of the economic downturn and disproportionately getting sick, being hospitalized, and dying.

Our mission is to empower all students with the tools, systems, knowledge, and mindsets to prepare them to fully participate in the global economy and in a robust democracy.

Every organization that is committed to educational improvement needs to ask itself what it can do differently to further advance the cause of educational equity during this continuing crisis so that we can make lasting improvements. As we know from past experience, if the goal of equity is not kept front and center, those who are already behind through no fault of their own will benefit the least. If ever there were a time to heed this caution, it is now.

We hope that our nation will approach education with a new sense of purpose and a shared commitment to ensuring that our schools truly work for every child. Whether or not that happens will depend on our resolve and our actions in the coming months. We have the proof points and know-how to transform learning, bolster instruction, and meet the needs of our most disadvantaged students. What has changed is the urgency for doing so at scale.

Our starting place must be a vision of equal opportunity, and from there we must create the conditions that can actually ensure it — irrespective of how different they may look from the ones we now have. We need to reimagine the systems that shape student learning and put the communities whose circumstances we most need to elevate at the center of that process. We need to recognize that we will not improve student outcomes without building the capacity of the adults who work with them, supporting them with high-quality resources and meaningful opportunities for collaboration and professional growth. We need to promote stronger connections between K–12, higher education, and employment so that all students are prepared for lifelong success.

The pandemic has deepened inequities that threaten students’ prospects. But if we seize this moment and learn from it, if we marshal the necessary resources, we have the potential to transform our education system from one characterized by uneven and unjust results to one that puts all students on a path to bright futures.

In a pandemic-induced moment when the American education system has been blown into 25 million homes across the country, where do we go from here?

We Must Learn to Act in New Ways

These are not controversial ideas. In fact, they constitute the general consensus about where American education needs to go. But they also represent a tall order for the people who influence the system. Practically everyone who plays a part in education must learn to act in new ways.

That we have made progress in such areas as high school completion, college-going rates, and the adoption of college- and career-ready standards is a testament to the commitment of those working in the field. But it will take more than commitment to achieve the changes in student learning that our times demand. We can’t expect individuals to figure out what they need to do on their own, nor should we be surprised if they struggle to do so when working in institutional structures designed to produce different outcomes. The transformation we seek calls for much greater coordination and a broader set of allies than would suffice for more incremental changes.

Our starting place must be a vision of equal opportunity, and from there we must create the conditions that can actually ensure it — irrespective of how different they may look from the ones we now have.

Our best hope for achieving equity and the transformation of student learning is to enhance adults’ ability to contribute to that learning. That means building their capacity while supporting their authentic engagement in promoting a high-quality education for every child. It also means ensuring that people operate within systems that are optimized to support their effectiveness and that a growing body of knowledge informs their efforts.

These notions comprise our overarching strategy for promoting the systems change needed to transform student learning experiences on a large scale. We seek to enhance adult capacity and stakeholder engagement in the service of ensuring that all students are prepared to meet the demands of the 21st century. We also support knowledge development and organizational improvement to the extent that investments in these areas enhance adult capacity, stakeholder engagement, and student experiences.

Five Ways We Invest in the Future of Students

These views on how best to promote systems change in education guide our philanthropic work. The strategic areas of change we focus on are major themes throughout our five investment portfolios. Although they are managed separately and support different types of initiatives, each seeks to address its area of focus from multiple angles. A single portfolio may include grants that build adult capacity, enhance stakeholder engagement, and generate new knowledge.

New Designs to Advance Learning

Preparing all students for success requires that we fundamentally reimagine our nation’s schools and classrooms. Our public education system needs to catch up with how the world is evolving and with what we’ve come to understand about how people learn. That means attending to a broader diversity of learning styles and bringing what happens in school into greater alignment with what happens in the worlds of work and civic life. We make investments to increase the number of innovative learning models that support personalized experiences, academic mastery, and positive youth development. We also make investments that build the capacity of districts and intermediaries to improve learning experiences for all students as well as grants to investigate relevant issues of policy and practice.

Pathways to Postsecondary Success

Lifelong success in the United States has never been more dependent on educational attainment than it is today. Completing some education beyond the 12th grade has virtually become a necessity for financial security and meaningful work. But for that possibility to exist for everyone, we need to address the historical barriers that keep many students from pursuing and completing a postsecondary program, and we must strengthen the options available to all students for education after high school. Through our investments, we seek to increase the number of young people able to access and complete a postsecondary program, with a major focus on removing historical barriers for students who are first-generation college-goers, low-income, or from underrepresented groups. We also look to expand the range of high-quality postsecondary options and to strengthen alignment between K–12, higher education, and the world of work.

Leadership and Teaching to Advance Learning

At its core, learning is about the interplay between teachers, students, and content. How teachers and students engage with each other and with their curriculum plays a predominant role in determining what students learn and how well they learn it. That’s not to say that factors outside of school don’t also greatly impact student learning. But the research is clear that among the factors a school might control, nothing outweighs the teaching that students experience. We focus on supporting educators in implementing rigorous college- and career-ready standards in math, science, and English language arts. We make investments to increase the supply of and demand for high-quality curricular materials and professional learning experiences for teachers and administrators.

Public Understanding

As central as they are to the education process, school professionals are hardly the only people with a critical role to play in student learning. Students spend far more time with family and other community members than they do at school. And numerous stakeholders outside of the education system have the potential to strengthen and shape what happens within it. The success of our nation’s schools depends on far more individuals than are employed by them. 

We invest in efforts to engage families and other stakeholders as active partners in supporting equitable access to high-quality student learning. We also support media organizations and policy research groups in building awareness about key issues related to educational equity and improvement.

Integration, Learning, and Innovation

Those of us who work for change in education need a new set of habits to achieve our vision of 21st-century learning. It will take more than a factory-model mindset to transform our education system into one that prepares all learners for an increasingly complex world. We must approach this task with flexibility, empathy for the people involved, and an understanding of how to learn from what’s working and what’s not. We work to reduce the fragmentation, inefficiencies, and missteps that often result when educational improvement strategies are pursued in isolation and without an understanding of the contexts in which they are implemented. Through grants and other activities, we build the capacity of people working in educational organizations to change how they work by emphasizing systems and design thinking, iteration, and knowledge sharing within and across organizations.

Two recent surveys by Carnegie Corporation of New York and Gallup offer insights into how our education system can better help all Americans navigate job and career choices

Join Us in This Ambitious Endeavor

Our approach of supporting multiple stakeholders by pulling multiple levers is informed by our deep understanding of the system we’re trying to move. American education is a massive, diverse, and highly decentralized enterprise. There is no mechanism by which we might affect more than superficial change in many thousands of communities. The type of change that is needed cannot come from compliance alone. It requires that everyone grapple with new ideas.

We know from our history of promoting large-scale improvements in American education that advancements won’t happen overnight or as the result of one kind of initiative. Our vision for 21st-century education will require more than quick wins and isolated successes. Innovation is essential, and a major thrust of our work involves the incubation and dissemination of new models, resources, and exemplars. But we must also learn to move forward with the empathy, flexibility, and systems thinking needed to support people in making the transition. Novel solutions only help if they can be successfully implemented in different contexts.

Only a sustained and concerted effort will shift the center of gravity of a social enterprise that involves millions of adults and many tens of millions of young people. The challenge of philanthropy is to effect widespread social change with limited resources and without formal authority. This takes more than grantmaking. At the Corporation, we convene, communicate, and form coalitions. We provide thought leadership, issue challenges, and launch new initiatives. Through these multifaceted activities, we maximize our ability to forge, share, and put into practice powerful new ideas that build a foundation for more substantial changes in the future.

We encourage everyone who plays a role in education to join us in this work. Our strategy represents more than our priorities as a grantmaker. It conveys our strong beliefs about how to get American education to where it needs to be. The more organizations and individuals we have supporting those who are working to provide students with what they need, the more likely we are to succeed in this ambitious endeavor. 

LaVerne Evans Srinivasan is the vice president of Carnegie Corporation of New York’s National Program and the program director for Education.

TOP: Due to the COVID-19 outbreak, a lower-school substitute teacher works from her home in Arlington, Virginia, on April 1, 2020. Her role in the school changed significantly due to the pandemic. Whereas she previously worked part-time to support teachers when they needed to be absent from the classroom, amid COVID-19 she now helps teachers to build skills with new digital platforms so they can continue to teach in the best way for their students and their families. (Credit: Olivier Douliery/AFP via Getty Images)

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Why do States Have Rule over Education?

State authorities have more control over education in the US the education system than federal or local authorities. In fact, the Constitution does not provide for education under its clauses, but since education is so important; the government has ensured that education is available to all without unequal measure. Many have questioned this distribution of educational power. Why do states have rule over education? Why is the federal body not the decisive executors of education similar to other basic needs of the country?

The answer comes with understanding the vastness of the United States of America and the vast amount of diversity within its borders. Each state is almost as large as or larger than some of the smaller countries of the world; and consequently, each location has its unique requirements and capabilities. Specific attention to individualistic positions, scopes and requirements of education according to location were considered too varied and vast for the federal authority to cope with. The federal government is not without authority, however, as the federal government exercises control at times based on the amount of funding it provides states. This is especially true in higher education, as the federal government wields its unofficial power by set strict requirements for schools to be eligible for federal grant and loan programs, something that almost no college or university can survive without.

This is true in primary and secondary education also. Each state is responsible to submit their requisition for educational grants and funds individually to be eligible for federal funding. Therefore, the federal government can control state systems by funding programs that are deemed acceptable within its standards and by granting more aid to some states as compared to others based on their proposals. However, states do not get most of their educational funding from the federal government; in fact most of the funding comes from the state taxation system. Therefore, states can choose not to follow federal guidelines for funding and still run their educational system outside of the federal guidelines. Most choose, however, to follow federal guidelines in order to receive federal aid.

As mentioned above, most of the funding for the state's respective educational systems comes from the state itself, and this is another one of the main reasons for state control. The system works on the premise that if it was the state taxpayers who paid for the schools, they should be the ones who direct how that money is used.

Another reason for state control is better coordination. Since local bodies are responsible for the educational grant execution and sanction within their district, it is easier for the state government to coordinate these disbursals. It is also easier for the state government to assess and oversee local districts.

The states do have rule over their own respective educational systems, and for good reasons. Even though the federal government does exert its influence when it comes to funding, the states ultimately make the decisions for the sake of their citizens.

A primer on elementary and secondary education in the United States

Editor’s Note: This report is an excerpt, with minor edits, from Addressing Inequities in the US K-12 Education System , which first appeared in Rebuilding the Pandemic Economy , published by the Aspen Economic Strategy Group in 2021.

This report reviews the basics of the American elementary and secondary education system: Who does what and how do we pay for it? While there are some commonalities across the country, the answers to both questions, it turns out, vary considerably across states. 1

Who does what?

Schools are the institution most visibly and directly responsible for educating students. But many other actors and institutions affect what goes on in schools. Three separate levels of government—local school districts, state governments, and the federal government—are involved in the provision of public education. In addition, non-governmental actors, including teachers’ unions, parent groups, and philanthropists play important roles.

Most 5- to 17-year-old children – about 88%– attend public schools. 2 (Expanding universal schooling to include up to two years of preschool is an active area of discussion which could have far-reaching implications, but we focus on grades K-12 here.) About 9% attend private schools; about a quarter of private school students are in non-sectarian schools, and the remaining three-quarters are about evenly split between Catholic and other religious schools. The remaining 3% of students are homeschooled.

Magnet schools are operated by local school districts but enroll students from across the district; magnet schools often have special curricula—for example, a focus on science or arts—and were sometimes designed specifically to encourage racial integration. Charter schools are publicly funded and operate subject to state regulations; private school regulations and homeschooling requirements are governed by state law and vary across states. Nationally, 6.8% of public school students are enrolled in charter schools; the remainder attend “traditional public schools,” where students are mostly assigned to schools based on their home address and the boundaries school districts draw. Washington, D.C. and Arizona have the highest rates of charter enrollment, with 43 and 19% of their public school students attending charter schools. Several states have little or no charter school enrollment. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly all public schooling took place in person, with about 0.6% of students enrolled in virtual schools.

Local School Districts

Over 13,000 local education agencies (LEAs), also known as school districts, are responsible for running traditional public schools. The size and structure of local school districts, as well as the powers they have and how they operate, depend on the state. Some states have hundreds of districts, and others have dozens. District size is mostly historically determined rather than a reflection of current policy choices. But while districts can rarely “choose” to get smaller or larger, district size implicates  important   trade-offs . Having many school districts operating in a metropolitan area can enhance incentives for school and district administrators to run schools consistent with the preferences of residents, who can vote out leaders or vote with their feet by leaving the district. On the other hand, fragmentation can lead to more segregation by race and income and less equity in funding, though state laws governing how local districts raise revenue may address the funding issues. Larger districts can benefit from economies of scale as the fixed costs of operating a district are spread over more students and they are better able to operate special programs, but large districts can also be difficult to manage. And even though large districts have the potential to pool resources between more- and less-affluent areas, equity challenges persist as staffing patterns lead to different levels of spending at schools within the same district.

School boards can be elected or appointed, and they generally are responsible for hiring the chief school district administrator, the superintendent. In large districts, superintendent turnover is often cited as a barrier to sustained progress on long term plans, though the causation may run in the other direction: Making progress is difficult, and frustration with reform efforts leads to frequent superintendent departures. School districts take in revenue from local, state, and federal sources, and allocate resources—primarily staff—to schools. The bureaucrats in district “central offices” oversee administrative functions including human resources, curriculum and instruction, and compliance with state and federal requirements. The extent to which districts devolve authority over instructional and organizational decisions to the school level varies both across and within states.

State Governments

The U.S. Constitution reserves power over education for the states. States have delegated authority to finance and run schools to local school districts but remain in charge when it comes to elementary and secondary education. State constitutions contain their own—again, varying—language about the right to education, which has given rise to litigation over the level and distribution of school funding in nearly all states over the past half century. States play a major role in school finance, both by sending aid to local school districts and by determining how local districts are allowed to tax and spend, as discussed further below.

State legislatures and state education agencies also influence education through mechanisms outside the school finance system. For example, states may set requirements for teacher certification and high school graduation, regulate or administer retirement systems, determine the ages of compulsory schooling, decide how charter schools will (or will not) be established and regulated, set home-schooling requirements, establish curricular standards or approve specific instructional materials, choose standardized tests and proficiency standards, set systems for school accountability (subject to federal law), and create (or not) education tax credits or vouchers to direct public funds to private schools. Whether and how states approach these issues—and which functions they delegate to local school districts—varies considerably.

Federal Government

The authority of the federal government to direct schools to take specific actions is weak. Federal laws protect access to education for specific groups of students, including students with disabilities and English language learners. Title IX prohibits sex discrimination in education, and the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of race. The U.S. Department of Education issues  regulations and guidance  on K-12 laws and oversees grant distribution and compliance. It also collects and shares data and funds research. The Bureau of Indian Education is housed in the Department of the Interior, not the Department of Education.

The federal government influences elementary and secondary education primarily by providing funding—and through the rules surrounding the use of those funds and the conditions that must be met to receive federal funding. Federal aid is typically allocated according to formulas targeting particular populations. The largest formula-aid federal programs are Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which provides districts funds to support educational opportunity, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), for special education. Both allocate funding in part based on child poverty rates. State and school district fiscal personnel ensure that districts comply with rules governing how federal funds can be spent and therefore have direct influence on school environments. Since 1965, in addition to specifying how federal funds can be spent, Congress has required states and districts to adopt other policies as a condition of Title I receipt. The policies have changed over time, but most notably include requiring school districts to desegregate, requiring states to adopt test-based accountability systems, and requiring the use of “evidence-based” approaches. 

IDEA establishes protections for students with disabilities in addition to providing funding. The law guarantees their right to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive setting and sets out requirements for the use of Individualized Educational Programs. Because of these guarantees, IDEA allows students and families to pursue litigation. Federal law prohibits conditioning funding on the use of any specific curriculum. The Obama Administration’s Race to the Top program was also designed to promote specific policy changes—many related to teacher policy—but through a competitive model under which only select states or districts “won” the funds. For the major formula funds, like Title I and IDEA, the assumption (nearly always true) is that states and districts will adopt the policies required to receive federal aid and all will receive funds; in some cases, those policy changes may have  more impact than the money  itself. The federal government also allocated significant funding to support schools during the Great Recession and during the COVID-19 pandemic through specially created fiscal stabilization or relief funds; federal funding for schools during the COVID crisis was significantly larger than during the Great Recession.

The federal tax code, while perhaps more visible in its influence on higher education, also serves as a K-12 policy lever. The controversial state and local tax deduction, now limited to $10,000, reduces federal tax collections and subsidizes progressive taxation for state and local spending, including for education. As of 2018, 529 plans, which historically allowed tax-preferred savings only for higher education expenses, can also be used for private K-12 expenses.

Non-Governmental Actors

Notable non-governmental actors in elementary and secondary education include teachers’ unions and schools of education, along with parents, philanthropists, vendors, and other advocates.The nation’s three million public school teachers are a powerful political force, affecting more than just teachers’ compensation. For example, provisions of collective bargaining agreements meant to improve teachers working conditions also limit administrator flexibility.  Teachers unions  are also important political actors; they play an active role in federal, state, and school board elections and advocate for (or, more often, against) a range of policies affecting education.  Union strength varies considerably across U.S. states.

Both states and institutions of higher education play important roles in determining who teaches and the preparation they receive. Policies related to teacher certification and preparation requirements, ranging from whether teachers are tested on academic content to which teachers are eligible to supervise student teachers, vary considerably across states. 3 Meanwhile,  reviews of teacher training programs  reveal many programs do not do a good job incorporating consensus views of research-based best practices in key areas. To date, schools of education have not been the focus of much policy discussion, but they would be critical partners in any changes to how teachers are trained.

Parents play an important role, through a wide range of channels, in determining what happens in schools. Parents choose schools for their children, either implicitly when they choose where to live or explicitly by enrolling in a charter school, private school, participating in a school district choice program, or homeschooling, though these choices are constrained by income, information, and other factors. They may also raise money through Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs) or other foundations—and determine how it is spent. And they advocate for (or against) specific policies, curriculum, or other aspects of schooling through parent organizations, school boards, or other levels of government. Parents often also advocate for their children to receive certain teachers, placements, evaluation, or services; this is particularly true for parents of students with disabilities, who often must make sure their children receive legally required services and accommodations. Though state and federal policymakers sometimes  mandate parent engagement , these mechanisms do not necessarily provide meaningful pathways for parental input and are often dominated by  white and higher-SES parents .      

Philanthropy also has an important influence on education policy, locally and nationally. Not only do funders support individual schools in traditional ways, but they are also increasingly active in influencing federal and state laws. Part of these philanthropic efforts happen through advocacy groups, including civil rights groups, religious groups, and the hard-to-define “education reform” movement. Finally, the many vendors of curriculum, assessment, and “edtech” products and services bring their own lobbying power.

Paying for school

Research on school finance might be better termed school district finance because districts are the jurisdictions generating and receiving revenue, and districts, not schools, are almost always responsible for spending decisions. School districts typically use staffing models to send resources to schools, specifying how many staff positions (full-time equivalents), rather than dollars, each school gets. 

Inflation-adjusted, per-pupil revenue to school districts has increased steadily over time and averaged about $15,500 in 2018-19 (total expenditure, which includes both ongoing and capital expenditure, is similar but we focus on revenue because we are interested in the sources of revenue). Per-pupil revenue growth tends to stall or reverse in recessions and has only recently recovered to levels seen prior to the Great Recession (Figure 1). On average, school districts generated about 46% of their revenue locally, with about 80% of that from property taxes; about 47% of revenue came from state governments and about 8% from the federal government. The share of revenue raised locally has declined from about 56% in the early 1960s to 46% today, while the state and federal shares have grown. Local revenue comes from taxes levied by local school districts, but local school districts often do not have complete control over the taxes they levy themselves, and they almost never determine exactly how much they spend because that depends on how much they receive in state and federal aid. State governments may require school districts to levy certain taxes, limit how much local districts are allowed to tax or spend, or they may implicitly or explicitly redistribute some portion of local tax revenue to other districts.

Both the level of spending and distribution of revenue by source vary substantially across states (Figure 2), with New York, the highest-spending state, spending almost $30,000 per pupil, while Idaho, Utah, and Oklahoma each spent under $10,000 per pupil. (Some, but far from all, of this difference is related to higher labor costs in New York.) Similarly, the local share of revenue varies from less than 5% in Hawaii and Vermont to about 60% in New Hampshire and Nebraska. On average, high-poverty states spend less, but there is also considerable variation in spending among states with similar child poverty rates.

Discussions of school funding equity—and considerable legal action—focus on inequality of funding across school districts  within the same state . While people often assume districts serving disadvantaged students spend less per pupil than wealthier districts within a state, per-pupil spending and the child poverty rate are nearly always uncorrelated or  positively  correlated, with higher-poverty districts spending more on average. Typically, disadvantaged districts receive more state and federal funding, offsetting differences in funding from local sources. Meanwhile, considerable inequality exists between states, and poorer states spend less on average. Figure 3 illustrates an example of this dynamic, showing the relationship between district-level per-pupil spending and the child poverty rate in North Carolina (a relatively low-spending state with county- and city-based districts) and Illinois (a higher-spending state with many smaller districts). In North Carolina, higher poverty districts spend more on average; Illinois is one of only a few states in which this relationship is reversed. But this does not mean poor kids get fewer resources in Illinois than in North Carolina. Indeed, nearly  all  districts in Illinois spend more than most districts in North Carolina, regardless of poverty rate.

Figure 4 gives a flavor of the wide variation in per-pupil school spending. Nationally, the district at the 10th percentile had per-pupil current expenditure of $8,800, compared to $18,600 at the 90th percentile (for these calculations we focus on current expenditure, which is less volatile year-to-year, rather than revenue). Figure 4 shows that this variation is notably  not  systematically related to key demographics. For example, on average, poor students attend school in districts that spent $13,023 compared to $13,007 for non-poor students. The average Black student attends school in a district that spent $13,485 per student, compared to $12,918 for Hispanic students and $12,736 for White students. 4  School districts in high-wage areas need to spend more to hire the same staff, but adjusting spending to account for differences in prevailing wages of college graduates (the second set of bars) does not change the picture much.

Does this mean the allocation of spending is fair? Not really. First, to make progress reducing the disparities in outcomes discussed above, schools serving more disadvantaged students will need to spend  more  on average. Second, these data are measured at the school district level, lumping all schools together. This potentially masks inequality across (as well as within) schools in the same district.

The federal government now requires states to report some spending at the school level; states have only recently released these data. One study using these new data finds that within districts, schools attended by students of color and economically-disadvantaged students tend to have more staff per pupil and to spend more per pupil. These schools also have more novice teachers. How could within-district spending differences systematically correlate with student characteristics, when property taxes and other revenues for the entire district feed into the central budget? Most of what school districts buy is staff, and compensation is largely based on credentials and experience. So schools with less-experienced teachers spend less per pupil than those with more experienced ones, even if they have identical teacher-to-student ratios. Research suggests schools enrolling more economically disadvantaged students, or more students of color, on average have worse working conditions for teachers and experience more teacher turnover. Together, this means that school districts using the same staffing rules for each school—or even allocating more staff to schools serving more economically disadvantaged students—would have different patterns in spending per pupil than staff per pupil.

[1] : For state-specific information, consult state agency websites (e.g., Maryland State Department of Education) for more details. You can find data for all 50 states at the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics , and information on state-specific policies at the Education Commission of the States .

[2] : The numbers in this section are based on the most recent data available in the Digest of Education Statistics, all of which were collected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.

[3] : See the not-for-profit National Council on Teacher Quality for standards and reviews of teacher preparation programs, and descriptions of state teacher preparation policies.

[4] : These statistics may be particularly surprising to people given the widely publicized findings of the EdBuild organization that, “ Nonwhite school districts get $23 billion less than white school districts. ” The EdBuild analysis estimates gaps between districts where at least 75% of students are non-White versus at least 75% of students are White. These two types of districts account for 53% of enrollment nationally. The $23 billion refers to state and local revenue (excluding federal revenue), whereas we focus on current expenditure (though patterns for total expenditure or total revenue are similar).

Disclosures: The Brookings Institution is financed through the support of a diverse array of foundations, corporations, governments, individuals, as well as an endowment. A list of donors can be found in our annual reports published online  here . The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in this report are solely those of its author(s) and are not influenced by any donation .

About the Authors

Sarah reber, joseph a. pechman senior fellow – economic studies, nora gordon, professor – mccourt school of public policy, georgetown university.

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The New York State Education Department is part of the University of the State of New York (USNY) , one of the most complete, interconnected systems of educational services in the United States.

Our mission is to raise the knowledge, skill, and opportunity of all the people in New York. Our vision is to provide leadership for a system that yields the best educated people in the world.

Main Branches

The State Education Department has the following main branches, each under the direction of the Commissioner of Education:

Office of P-12 Education (P-12) The Office of P-12 Education oversees pre-K through 12th grade programs. The Office of P-12 Education has diverse responsibilities carried out by the P-12 Program Offices .

Office of Higher Education (OHE) This division oversees colleges, universities and proprietary schools; is responsible for the certification of teachers and other school professionals; and oversees programs to improve teacher preparation and recruitment.

Office of Cultural Education (OCE) OCE includes the State Archives , the State Library , the State Museum ,   Office of Public Broadcasting Office  and the  Summer School of the Arts . These institutions are responsible for increasing the knowledge and information resources of State and local government, businesses, and individuals. The Office supports research, operates programs, and develops collections that serve the long-term interests of the institutions and residents of New York and support arts education for high-school students.

Office of Performance Improvement and Management Services (PIMS) PIMS includes the offices of Information Technology, Facilities and Business Services, State Review Office and External Audits.

Chief Financial Office (CFO) CFO includes the offices of Human Resources, Fiscal Services, Budget Coordination, Education Finance, Internal Audit and Internal Controls.

Office of the Professions (OP) Since 1891, the Board of Regents and the New York State Education Department have overseen the preparation, licensure, and practice of the professions. Currently, the Office regulates forty-eight professions defined in Title VIII of the Education Law.

Office of Adult Career and Continuing Education Services (ACCES) The Office of Adult Career and Continuing Education Services (ACCES) focuses on the education and employment needs of New York State's adults:  Vocational Rehabilitation (including Independent Living Administration), Adult Education , High School Equivalency (HSE/TASC™) , and Career Schools .

A high-level organization chart provides an overview of the relationship among these offices.

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Who Holds the Reigns of the Education System – A Closer Look into the Power Dynamics and Decision Makers

In the realm of education, there are many stakeholders who play a crucial role in shaping and overseeing the system. The responsibility for the education system is shared among various individuals, organizations, and governing bodies, each with their own unique role to play. Understanding who is in charge of education is essential for effective governance and improvement of the system.

First and foremost, the government is in charge of education. It has the overarching responsibility of providing a framework for education policy and ensuring that all citizens have access to quality education. The government sets the standards, develops curricula, and allocates resources to schools and institutions. Through its education ministries or departments, it establishes guidelines and regulations, monitors the performance of schools, and takes steps to address any issues or shortcomings that may arise.

Another key player in the education system is the school administration. At the school level, principals and administrators are responsible for managing the day-to-day operations. They oversee the implementation of curriculum, manage teachers and staff, and create a conducive learning environment for students. School administrators work closely with teachers, parents, and students to ensure that educational objectives are met and that the needs of all stakeholders are addressed.

Teachers are at the forefront of education and shoulder a significant portion of the responsibility. They are responsible for delivering instruction, designing lessons, assessing student progress, and providing support and guidance. Teachers play a crucial role in shaping students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. They are not only facilitators of learning but also mentors, counselors, and role models for their students.

Parents also have a significant role to play in the education system. They are responsible for supporting their children’s education, ensuring their attendance, and motivating them to excel academically. Good parental involvement can have a significant impact on a child’s learning outcomes and overall educational experience. Parents can be actively engaged in their child’s school activities, participate in parent-teacher associations, and collaborate with educators to create a positive and nurturing learning environment.

Ministry of Education

The Ministry of Education is the governing body responsible for the management and oversight of the education system in a country. It plays a crucial role in setting policies, developing curriculum, and ensuring the quality of education provided to students.

One of the main functions of the Ministry of Education is to develop and implement educational policies that align with the national goals and priorities. These policies cover various aspects such as curriculum development, teacher training, student assessment, and school infrastructure. By setting clear guidelines and standards, the ministry ensures that all educational institutions adhere to a consistent and high-quality system of education.

The Ministry of Education also plays a key role in allocating resources to the education system. It is responsible for budgeting and allocating funds to schools, colleges, and universities to ensure that they have the necessary resources to provide quality education. This includes funding for textbooks, technology, infrastructure, and professional development for teachers.

In addition to policy development and resource allocation, the Ministry of Education is also responsible for monitoring and evaluating the performance of educational institutions. It conducts regular inspections and assessments to ensure that schools are meeting the required standards of education. If any issues or deficiencies are identified, the ministry takes appropriate measures to address them and improve the overall quality of education.

The Ministry of Education is a crucial entity in the management of the education system. Its role in policy development, resource allocation, and monitoring ensures that the education system functions effectively and provides students with the knowledge and skills they need for future success.

Department of Education

The Department of Education plays a crucial role in the education system of the country. It is responsible for overseeing and implementing educational policies, programs, and initiatives to ensure quality education for all. The department works in collaboration with other government agencies and educational institutions to develop the curriculum, set standards, and promote best practices in teaching and learning.

One of the primary responsibilities of the Department of Education is to provide funding and resources to schools and educational institutions. This includes allocating budgets, distributing grants, and supporting initiatives aimed at improving the infrastructure and facilities in schools.

The department also plays a key role in assessing and monitoring the performance of schools and educational programs. It conducts regular evaluations, collects data, and analyzes the results to identify areas that need improvement. Based on these assessments, the department provides recommendations and guidance to schools and educators on how to enhance teaching and learning outcomes.

In addition to its administrative functions, the Department of Education also plays a vital role in shaping education policies and advocating for educational reforms. It works closely with policymakers, educators, and stakeholders to develop and implement policies that address the changing needs of the education system.

Overall, the Department of Education plays a pivotal role in the education system by ensuring that all students have access to quality education, supporting educational institutions, and guiding the development of effective policies and programs.

School Administration

In the education system, the school administration plays a crucial role in managing and overseeing the daily operations of a school. They are in charge of creating a safe and conducive learning environment for students, ensuring that the curriculum is properly implemented, and supervising teachers and staff.

The school administration is responsible for developing policies and procedures that govern the school’s activities. They establish rules and regulations, set academic standards, and create a code of conduct for students and staff members. They also handle disciplinary issues and take appropriate action when necessary.

Roles and Responsibilities of the School Administration:

• Management: The administration is responsible for managing the school’s resources, including finances, facilities, and equipment. They allocate funds for various educational programs and initiatives, maintain the school building and grounds, and ensure that necessary resources are available for teaching and learning.
• Curriculum Development: The administration works with teachers and curriculum specialists to develop a comprehensive and effective curriculum that meets the educational needs of the students. They review and update the curriculum regularly to incorporate new developments and instructional strategies.
• Teacher Supervision: The administration provides guidance and support to teachers, helping them improve their instructional practices and professional development. They conduct evaluations and observations to ensure that teachers are delivering quality education to students.
• Student Welfare: The school administration is responsible for the overall well-being of the students. They ensure that students are provided with a safe and inclusive environment, address their individual needs, and promote their social and emotional development.
• Community Engagement: The administration fosters positive relationships with parents, community organizations, and other stakeholders. They collaborate with external partners to enhance educational opportunities and resources for students.

In conclusion, the school administration plays a vital role in the education system, being in charge of managing various aspects of the school. Their responsibilities encompass creating a conducive learning environment, developing policies, supervising staff, managing resources, and ensuring the overall well-being of students.

School Principals

School principals play a key role in the education system. They are in charge of managing the day-to-day operations of the school, ensuring the smooth running of the institution, and providing leadership to both teachers and students.

One of the main responsibilities of school principals is to create a positive and conducive learning environment for students. They work closely with teachers and staff to develop and implement effective educational programs and curricula. Principals are also responsible for promoting a safe and respectful school atmosphere where students can thrive.

Additionally, school principals are responsible for fostering strong relationships with parents, guardians, and the wider community. They serve as a link between the school and the community, organizing and attending meetings, and ensuring that parents are informed about their child’s progress and the overall school performance.

Moreover, school principals are in charge of managing the school budget and allocating resources appropriately. They oversee the hiring and evaluation of teachers and staff, ensuring that the school is staffed with competent professionals who can meet the needs of the students.

In summary, school principals are an integral part of the education system. They are in charge of various aspects of running a school, including creating a positive learning environment, building community relationships, managing resources, and leading the school’s staff. Their role is crucial in ensuring the success of both teachers and students.

Teachers are an essential part of the education system. They are in charge of imparting knowledge and shaping the minds of the students. The role of teachers in the education system is crucial as they are the ones responsible for providing quality education to students.

Teachers play a vital role in the upbringing of children by not only educating them academically but also helping them develop social and emotional skills. They create a conducive learning environment where students can thrive and excel in their studies.

Teachers are responsible for designing lesson plans, delivering lectures, and assessing students’ performance. They need to have a deep understanding of the subject matter they teach and employ effective teaching methods to ensure students grasp the concepts.

Furthermore, teachers also act as mentors and role models for their students. They provide guidance and support, instill discipline, and encourage students to explore their talents and interests. Teachers are often the ones who identify and nurture the potential of their students, helping them discover their strengths and weaknesses.

In addition to their academic responsibilities, teachers also play a significant role in the overall development of students. They promote values like respect, empathy, and cooperation while fostering a sense of community within the classroom.

Overall, teachers are the backbone of the education system. They are in charge of moulding the future generation and equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to succeed in life. Without dedicated and passionate teachers, the education system would not be able to function effectively.

School boards

The role of school boards is an important aspect of the education system. School boards are responsible for governing and overseeing the operations of public schools within their district. They are in charge of making decisions that affect the educational programs, policies, and resources of the schools.

Members of school boards are usually elected by the community or appointed by government officials. They serve as a link between the community and the school system, ensuring that the needs and preferences of the community are considered in the decision-making process.

The main responsibilities of school boards include setting educational goals and objectives, developing and approving policies, hiring and evaluating school administrators, approving budgets, and representing the interests of students and parents. They play a crucial role in ensuring the quality of education provided by the schools within their jurisdiction.

School boards also have the authority to make decisions regarding curriculum development, student discipline, school facilities, and other important aspects of the education system. They work closely with school administrators, teachers, and parents to create a positive learning environment and ensure that students receive the best possible education.

In conclusion, school boards are an integral part of the education system, charged with the responsibility of governing and overseeing public schools. Through their decision-making and representation of the community, they have a significant impact on the quality and direction of education in their district.

Local Government

One important component of the education system is the involvement of local government. Local government plays a crucial role in the management and administration of education within a particular region or area.

The responsibilities of local government in the education system vary depending on the location and the structure of the government. In some cases, local governments are responsible for funding and maintaining schools, while in others, they have a more advisory role.

Local government officials are often elected directly by the people in the community, which means that they are more likely to have a deep understanding of the needs and priorities of the local education system. This allows them to make decisions that are more tailored to the specific needs of the community.

Funding and Budgeting

One of the key responsibilities of local government in the education system is funding and budgeting. They are responsible for allocating resources to schools and ensuring that they have the necessary funds to provide a quality education to students.

Local government officials work closely with education authorities to develop and implement budgets that meet the needs of the schools in their area. They also play a role in securing additional funding through grants and partnerships with other organizations.

School Governance

Local government officials also play a role in school governance. They may be responsible for appointing school board members, who are responsible for overseeing the operations and policies of individual schools.

Additionally, local government officials may have input in the hiring process for school administrators, such as principals and superintendents. They may also have the authority to make decisions regarding school closures or consolidations.

Federal Government

The education of its citizens is a fundamental responsibility of any government. In the United States, the federal government plays a significant role in the education system. While the primary responsibility for education lies with individual states, the federal government provides oversight, funding, and sets certain standards for educational programs.

The U.S. Department of Education is the federal agency in charge of education policies and programs at the national level. It develops and implements initiatives to improve the quality of education and ensure equal access to education for all students. The department also provides financial assistance to states and schools, including grants and loans.

Through legislation such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the federal government establishes requirements for student achievement and supports programs for students with disabilities. It also conducts research, collects data, and provides resources to educators and administrators.

Additionally, the federal government plays a role in higher education through the administration of federal student financial aid programs, such as Pell Grants and student loans. It also oversees accreditation of colleges and universities to ensure quality and accountability.

Overall, the federal government is in charge of ensuring that the education system in the United States meets certain standards and provides opportunities for all students. While the specifics of education policies may vary among states, the federal government’s involvement is crucial in shaping and supporting the nation’s education system.

Education Commission

The Education Commission is in charge of overseeing the education system. It plays a crucial role in ensuring that the system is effective and meets the needs of all students. This commission is responsible for the overall administration and regulation of education in the country.

One of the key responsibilities of the Education Commission is to develop education policies and standards. It sets guidelines for curriculum development, teaching methods, and assessment practices. The commission also monitors the implementation of these policies to ensure that they are being followed consistently.

In addition, the Education Commission is in charge of allocating resources for the education system. It determines how funds are distributed among schools and universities, ensuring that each educational institution has adequate resources to provide quality education. The commission also oversees the maintenance and improvement of educational infrastructure.

Another important role of the Education Commission is to evaluate the performance of the education system. It collects data on student outcomes, such as academic achievement and graduation rates, to assess the effectiveness of the system. This information helps the commission identify areas for improvement and make necessary changes to enhance the quality of education.

The Education Commission also plays a crucial role in promoting equity and inclusiveness in the education system. It works towards ensuring that all students, regardless of their background or abilities, have equal access to quality education. The commission develops policies and initiatives to reduce educational disparities and address the needs of marginalized groups.

In summary, the Education Commission is in charge of the education system. It sets policies and standards, allocates resources, evaluates performance, and promotes equity and inclusiveness. Through its work, the commission strives to ensure that every student has access to a high-quality education.

Education Associations

Education associations play a crucial role in the development and improvement of the education system. These organizations are in charge of advocating for the needs and interests of educators, students, and the overall education system.

Education associations often collaborate with government agencies, school boards, and other educational stakeholders to establish policies and standards that will enhance the quality of education. They also provide professional development opportunities for educators, ensuring that they stay up-to-date with the latest teaching methods and technologies.

These associations also have the responsibility of representing the education system in public forums, advocating for adequate funding, and addressing any challenges or issues that may arise. They work towards creating a positive learning environment for students and ensuring equal access to education for all.

Furthermore, education associations play a significant role in research and data collection. They conduct studies and analyze data to identify areas of improvement and inform policy decisions. By staying informed about the latest research and trends in education, these associations can contribute to making informed decisions that will benefit students and educators.

In summary, education associations are vital in the education system as they are in charge of advocating for educational needs, collaborating with stakeholders, providing professional development, representing the system in public forums, and conducting research. Their efforts contribute to the continuous improvement and effectiveness of the education system.

Parent-Teacher Associations

In the education system, parents and teachers both play important roles in ensuring the success of students. Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) are organizations that bring together parents and teachers to collaborate and contribute to the educational development of children.

The Role of PTAs

PTAs are responsible for fostering communication between parents and teachers, and for promoting parental involvement in the education system. They provide a platform for parents to voice their opinions, concerns, and ideas, and for teachers to share updates and information about their classrooms and curriculum.

PTAs also organize various events and activities throughout the school year, such as parent-teacher conferences, fundraising events, and educational workshops. These initiatives aim to enhance the overall educational experience for students and foster a sense of community within the school.

The Importance of PTAs

PTAs play a vital role in bridging the gap between parents and teachers. By actively engaging parents in their child’s education, PTAs help create a supportive and collaborative environment that positively impacts student achievement.

Moreover, PTAs contribute to the development and improvement of the education system as a whole. They serve as a valuable resource for schools, providing input on policies, programs, and initiatives that can enhance the quality of education.

By involving parents in the decision-making processes, PTAs empower them to actively participate in shaping the education system and advocating for their children’s needs and interests.

Parent-Teacher Associations are an integral part of the education system. By bringing parents and teachers together, they create a supportive and collaborative environment that benefits students and contributes to the improvement of the overall education system.

Curriculum Developers

Curriculum developers play a crucial role in education as they are in charge of creating and designing the curriculum that students will follow. They are responsible for outlining the content, subjects, and skills that students need to learn at each grade level.

In education, the curriculum serves as the roadmap for teachers and students. It determines what knowledge and skills should be taught, how they should be taught, and how students’ progress should be assessed. Curriculum developers work closely with educators, administrators, and experts in various fields to ensure that the curriculum meets the needs of students and aligns with educational standards.

When developing the curriculum, professionals in this role consider a variety of factors, including educational goals, standards, and the needs and interests of students. They aim to create a curriculum that is engaging, relevant, and challenging for students, while also ensuring that it meets the requirements set by educational authorities.

The Responsibilities of Curriculum Developers

Curriculum developers have several key responsibilities:

• Research: They conduct extensive research to gather information and insights about educational best practices, curriculum standards, and the needs of students.
• Design: They use their research findings to design a comprehensive curriculum that includes learning objectives, content, instructional materials, and assessments.
• Collaboration: They collaborate with teachers, administrators, and subject matter experts to ensure that the curriculum is comprehensive, effective, and aligned with educational goals.
• Revision: They regularly review and revise the curriculum to incorporate feedback, new research, and changes in educational standards.
• Evaluation: They assess the effectiveness of the curriculum by analyzing student performance data, conducting surveys, and gathering feedback from educators and students.

Ultimately, curriculum developers are responsible for creating a high-quality curriculum that promotes effective teaching and learning, prepares students for their future endeavors, and equips them with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in life.

Education Regulators

In the system of education, there are various regulators that play a key role in ensuring the quality and standards of education. These regulators have the responsibility of overseeing and monitoring different aspects of the education system to ensure that it meets the required standards.

One of the main regulators of education is the Ministry of Education. This government department is responsible for overall policy-making and planning in education. They set the general guidelines and frameworks that shape the education system in the country.

Another important regulator is the Department of Education. This department is responsible for implementing and enforcing the policies and guidelines set by the Ministry of Education. They oversee the day-to-day operations of schools and educational institutions, ensuring that they comply with the relevant regulations.

Additionally, there are regulatory bodies specific to different levels and types of education. For example, in higher education, there are accreditation agencies that assess the quality of universities and colleges. These agencies ensure that the institutions meet certain standards in terms of faculty qualifications, curriculum, infrastructure, and student support services.

Furthermore, there are regulators focused on specific aspects of education. For instance, there are regulators for special education to ensure that students with special needs receive appropriate support and accommodations. There are also regulators for vocational education and apprenticeships, ensuring that these programs meet industry standards and provide students with relevant skills.

Lastly, local education authorities also play a role in regulating education within their jurisdiction. They oversee the allocation of resources, manage school admissions, and ensure that schools in their area meet the necessary standards.

In conclusion, the regulators of the education system have the important task of ensuring that education meets the required standards and provides students with quality learning opportunities. The Ministry of Education, Department of Education, accreditation agencies, and specialized regulators all work together to ensure the smooth functioning of the education system.

Education Inspectors

Educational inspectors play a vital role in the education system as they are in charge of monitoring and evaluating schools to ensure they meet certain standards and provide quality education to students. These inspectors work within the government or an independent body, and they have the responsibility of assessing schools based on a set of criteria.

In many countries, education inspectors are appointed by the government to oversee the functioning of schools and ensure compliance with national educational policies and regulations. They conduct regular inspections of schools, observe classroom teaching, review curriculum documents, and examine student performance data.

The education inspectors have the power to make recommendations for improvement and can suggest changes to teaching practices, curriculum, and school management. They may also provide guidance and support to schools to help them meet the required standards.

Education inspectors also play a crucial role in promoting accountability and transparency in the education system. By examining schools and producing reports, they provide important information to parents, communities, and policymakers about the quality of education being provided.

The findings of education inspectors can influence decision-making processes regarding funding, resource allocation, and educational policies. Their assessments can also help identify areas of improvement and highlight successful practices that can be replicated in other schools.

In conclusion, education inspectors are in the charge of assessing the quality of education provided by schools and ensuring that they meet the required standards. They play a significant role in promoting accountability, transparency, and improvement in the education system.

Funding Bodies

One of the crucial aspects of the education system is the provision of adequate financial resources to ensure its smooth operation. Funding bodies play a vital role in this regard, as they are responsible for the allocation and distribution of funds to schools and educational institutions. These bodies consist of government organizations, charitable foundations, and private donors who recognize the importance of investing in education.

The primary objective of the funding bodies is to ensure that the education system has sufficient financial resources to provide quality education to students. They monitor the needs of the system and assess the funding requirements of individual schools and institutions. Based on these assessments, they allocate funds accordingly, taking into account factors such as student enrollment, infrastructure needs, and special programs.

In addition to providing financial support, funding bodies also have the responsibility of monitoring the use of funds to ensure transparency and accountability. They may require schools and institutions to submit regular reports and financial statements to demonstrate how the allocated funds are being utilized. This helps in promoting good governance and preventing misuse of funds.

Furthermore, funding bodies often collaborate with education authorities and policymakers to develop funding formulas and strategies to address the changing needs of the education system. They actively participate in discussions regarding budget planning and policy-making, advocating for increased investments in education and highlighting areas that require additional funding.

In conclusion, funding bodies play a crucial role in ensuring the financial sustainability of the education system. They are in charge of allocating funds, monitoring their utilization, and advocating for increased investments. By fulfilling their responsibilities effectively, these bodies contribute to the overall development and improvement of the education system, thus benefiting students and society as a whole.

Society and Community Involvement

In the education system, society and community play a crucial role in taking charge of various aspects. The involvement of the wider society ensures that the system is accountable, inclusive, and responsive to the needs of students.

Collaboration with Parents and Families

Parents and families are essential stakeholders in the education system. They provide crucial support and guidance to students, helping them succeed academically and emotionally. Educational institutions involve parents and families by organizing regular parent-teacher meetings, workshops, and events to foster stronger partnerships.

Engaging Local Businesses

Local businesses have a vested interest in the education system as it provides them with a skilled workforce. Collaboration with businesses can offer students valuable opportunities, such as internships, mentorship programs, and career exploration activities. This involvement not only enhances the educational experience but also fosters a sense of connection and relevance to the real world.

Partnerships with Nonprofit Organizations

Nonprofit organizations dedicated to education can contribute significantly to the system. These organizations often have specialized expertise and resources that can supplement and enhance the educational offerings. Collaborating with nonprofits can lead to innovative programs, additional support services, and access to resources that may otherwise be unavailable.

Community Volunteers

Engaging community volunteers is an effective way to bridge the gap between schools and communities. Volunteers can support schools by assisting teachers, organizing extracurricular activities, and providing additional academic support. Their involvement helps create a sense of shared responsibility and promotes a stronger community bond.

Overall, involving society and community in the education system helps ensure that all stakeholders are invested in its success. By working together, they can create a comprehensive and inclusive learning environment for the students and future generations.

Question-answer:

Who is responsible for the education system.

The government is primarily responsible for the education system. They set policies, provide funding, and oversee the overall operations of schools.

What are the roles and responsibilities of the school board?

The school board is responsible for making decisions about curriculum, hiring and firing staff, managing the school budget, and representing the interests of the community.

What role do teachers play in the education system?

Teachers are responsible for developing and delivering curriculum, assessing student performance, providing individualized instruction, and fostering a positive learning environment.

How do parents contribute to the education system?

Parents play a critical role in their child’s education by providing support at home, attending parent-teacher conferences, volunteering at school, and advocating for their child’s needs.

What is the role of the Department of Education?

The Department of Education is responsible for implementing and enforcing education policies, distributing federal funding, and promoting educational research and innovation.

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Responsibility for publicly funded elementary and secondary education

Learn about the roles of some individuals and groups responsible for publicly funded elementary and secondary education. The duties are legislated in Education Act .

Read the legislation.

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The education act.

Education is a provincial government responsibility in Canada. In Ontario, education is governed principally by the Education Act and its regulations. The Education Act and its regulations set out duties and responsibilities of the Minister of Education and the duties and responsibilities of school boards, school board supervisory officers, principals, teachers, parents and students.

The Minister of Education

The Minister of Education represents the interests of the ministry at the provincial cabinet and assists in the development of education policy. With the assistance of the Ministry of Education, the Minister also administers the provincial statutes and regulations that concern education including those that set the length of the school year and allocate funds to school boards in a fair manner using the education funding model .

The Minister is also responsible for:

• developing curriculum
• setting policies and guidelines for school trustees, directors of education, principals and other school board officials
• setting requirements for student diplomas and certificates
• preparing lists of approved textbooks and other learning materials

School boards

Ontario's school boards operate the province's publicly-funded schools. The boards administer the funding they receive from the province for their schools.

Ontario's 72 District School Boards are made up of 31 English-language public boards, 29 English-language Catholic boards, 4 French-language public boards, and 8 French-language Catholic boards. As well, a small number of Ontario schools are operated by School Authorities. The School Authorities manage special types of schools, such as schools in hospitals and treatment facilities, and schools in remote and sparsely-populated regions.

School boards are responsible for:

• determining the number, size and location of schools
• building, equipping and furnishing schools
• providing education programs that meet the needs of the school community, including needs for special education
• prudent management of the funds allocated by the province to support all board activities, including education programs for elementary and secondary school students, and the building and maintaining of schools
• preparing an annual budget
• supervising the operation of schools and their teaching programs
• developing policy for safe arrival programs for elementary schools
• establishing a school council at each school
• hiring teachers and other staff
• helping teachers improve their teaching practices
• teacher performance
• approving schools' textbook and learning materials choices, based on the list of approved materials provided by the Ministry of Education
• enforcing the student attendance provisions of the Education Act
• ensuring schools abide by the Education Act and its regulations

Trustees are members of the school board. They provide an important link between local communities and the school board, bringing the issues and concerns of their constituents to board discussions and decision making. Trustees are elected every four years during municipal elections.

Under the law, only the elected board has the power to make decisions. Trustees do not have individual authority, but do have an important role to play as members of the board, including:

• working in partnership with school councils
• explaining the policies and decisions of the board to community residents
• supporting and encouraging public education

Principals are responsible for the organization and management of individual schools, including any budget assigned to the school by the school board. They are also responsible for the quality of instruction at their school and for student discipline. One or more Vice Principals may also be assigned to the school to help the principal with his or her work.

Each principal is responsible for:

• determining the organization of the school and ensuring ongoing maintenance of the school buildings
• administering the school's budget
• student admission and placement
• maintaining student records
• ensuring report cards are sent to parents
• developing a school safe arrival program with the help of the school council, parents, and the community (elementary schools)
• ensuring student supervision and school discipline
• assigning teachers to classes and assisting and supervising them
• making recommendations to the school board on the appointment, promotion, demotion and dismissal of teachers
• selecting textbooks and other learning materials from the approved Ministry of Education list, with the help of teachers

Teachers are responsible for:

• preparing lesson plans and teaching classes
• encouraging students in their studies and evaluating student work and progress
• supervising students behaviour and maintaining classroom discipline
• demonstrating good citizenship and respect for all groups of people
• acting as teacher-advisers for students in Grades 7-11, for example, helping students complete their annual education plans and monitoring their school performance and progress toward their career goals

Students are responsible for:

• attending classes and taking examinations
• exercising self-discipline and behaving courteously toward both their teachers and their fellow students

Parents are responsible for:

• ensuring their children attend school -- generally speaking, attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16

School councils

School councils advise principals and, where appropriate, school boards on issues affecting the education programs and the operation of individual schools. Their membership reflects both the school and the community, and must include parents and guardians of students, the principal, a teacher, a student representative (secondary school councils), a non-teaching school staff member, as well as members from the community at large. Parents and guardians must make up the majority of council members.

School Councils may advise the principal or the school board on:

• school year calendars
• codes of student behaviour
• curriculum priorities
• programs and strategies to improve school performance on provincial and school boards tests
• safe arrival programs (elementary schools)
• communications to parents and communications to the community
• community use of the school, and community programs and services provided at the school through school-community partnerships
• school board policies that will affect the school
• selection of principals

Ontario College of Teachers

The Ontario College of Teachers regulates the teaching profession and governs its members. The college was established by the provincial government in September 1996.

The College of Teachers is responsible for:

• setting requirements for teaching certificates and maintaining a provincial register of teachers
• setting standards for teacher training programs at Ontario universities, and monitoring the training programs to ensure they meet the standards
• developing codes of conduct for teachers
• investigating complaints against teachers and making decisions about teacher discipline and fitness to practice

Education Quality and Accountability Office

The Education Quality and Accountability Office ( EQAO ) was established by the Ontario government in 1996 to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of elementary and secondary school education.

The EQAO is responsible for:

• developing and administering tests to evaluate the achievement of Ontario elementary and secondary school students
• reporting test results to the Minister and to the public
• providing recommendations to improve test results

Distance education

TVO is a board-governed agency that has the authority to grant credits and award the Ontario Secondary School Diploma and certificates through the online independent Learning Centre. TVO ’s ILC offers:

• preparation for university or college admissions, career accreditation and personal or personal development
• courses in English and French

The TVO ILC school and school board identification numbers are:

• ILC Board School Identifier (B74900)
• ILC School Identifier (992038)