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What is ozone?

Ozone is a special form of oxygen with the chemical formula O3. The oxygen we breathe and that is so vital to life on earth is O2. Ozone constitutes a very small part of our atmosphere, but its presence is nevertheless vital to human well-being. Most ozone resides high up in the atmosphere, between 10 and 40km above Earth's surface. This region is called the stratosphere and it contains about 90% of all the ozone in the atmosphere.

Why do we care about atmospheric ozone?

Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs some of the Sun’s biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation. Because of this beneficial role, stratospheric ozone is considered “good” ozone. In contrast, excess ozone at Earth’s surface that is formed from pollutants is considered “bad” ozone because it can be harmful to humans, plants, and animals. The ozone that occurs naturally near the surface and in the lower atmosphere is also beneficial because ozone helps remove pollutants from the atmosphere.

The hole in the ozone layer

Following the publication of the findings of a British Antarctic Survey article in May 1985, the phenomenon of ozone depletion over Antarctica was referred to as the "ozone hole", a phrase first attributed to Nobel Prize winner Sherwood Rowland. The satellite image of the ozone hole has become a global symbol of this environmental threat that has helped mobilize public support for the Montreal Protocol. The work of atmospheric scientists and environmental researchers continues to play a paramount role in informing the policymaking under the Montreal Protocol. Images and scientific bulletins about ozone depletion are useful communication tools to the public about progress made and challenges ahead.

Latest ozone measurements

• Global ozone map Meteorological Service of Canada & Environment Canada
• Status of the ozone layer over the South Pole NASA Ozone Watch

Some Ozone Depleting Substances in Different Industry Sectors

Aerosols, sterilants and carbon tetrachloride.

CFCs are used in aerosol products, as sterilants of medical equipment, and in a range of miscellaneous applications including food freezing, tobacco expansion, fumigation and cancer therapy. Carbon tetrachloride is used as a feedstock in the production of CFC-11 and CFC-12, in the production of key pharmaceuticals and agricultural chemicals, and as a catalyst promoter. CFCs and carbon tetrachloride are ozone depleting substances whose production and consumption is controlled under the Montreal Protocol. With support from the Protocol's Multilateral Fund delivered by UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO, the World Bank and bilateral agencies, developing countries are phasing out these ozone depleting chemicals in this sector.

CFCs have been used extensively in the manufacture of polyurethane, phenolic, polystyrene and polyolefin foam polymers, used in many different products. Common blowing agents have included CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113 and CFC-114. CFCs are ozone depleting substances whose production and consumption is controlled under the Montreal Protocol. With support from the Protocol's Multilateral Fund delivered by UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO, the World Bank and bilateral agencies, developing countries are phasing out these ozone depleting chemicals in this sector.

Halon 1211 has been widely used in portable fire extinguishers. Halon 1301 has seen widespread use in fixed systems throughout the industrial, commercial, marine, defence, and aviation industries. Halon 2402 has primarily been used in the defence, industrial, marine and aviation sector in some countries. Halons are ozone depleting substances whose production and consumption is controlled under the Montreal Protocol. With support from the Protocol's Multilateral Fund delivered by UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO, the World Bank and bilateral agencies, developing countries are phasing out these ozone depleting chemicals in this sector.

The strategy for the halon sector essentially consists of two approaches: replacing halons with alternatives, and halon banking. Alternatives to halons include halocarbon alternatives, inert gases, water mist, fine particulate aerosols and streaming agents. In some cases, fire protection strategies may be re-considered and the need for halons eliminated. Halon banking, which includes recovery, recycling and establishing inventories, is used by companies and countries for managing existing halon supplies to cover remaining critical uses.

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) are widely used in the refrigeration, foam, solvent, aerosol and fire fighting sectors as a transitional substance to substitute CFCs. HCFCs are also used as feedstock (raw material) in the production for other chemical products. HCFCs were introduced in the 1990s as alternative chemicals for CFCs and added to the list of substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol. It was acknowledged at the time that these chemicals, with considerably lower ozone depleting potentials (ODP), were transitional and their production and consumption was also to be phased out under the Montreal Protocol. Although having considerably lower ozone depleting potentials than CFCs, many HCFCs have high global warming potentials, of up to 2000 times that of carbon dioxide.

In 2006 global HCFC production was 34,400 ODP tonnes and approximately 75% of global HCFC use is in air-conditioning and refrigeration sectors. The main HCFC used is HCFC-22 or chlorodifluoromethane. At the 20th anniversary meeting of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone layer agreement was reached to adjust the Montreal Protocol's HCFC phase out schedule to accelerate the phase-out of production and consumption of HCFCS. This decision will result in a significant reduction in ozone depletion and well as in global warming.

Methyl bromide

Methyl bromide is widely used as a fumigant in agriculture, for pest control in structures and stored commodities, and for quarantine treatments. Fumigation is a technique that allows the gas to reach pests which are in soil, in durables, in perishables, and in structures and vehicles. This chemical controls a wide range of pests, including pathogens (fungi, bacteria and soilborne viruses), insects, mites, nematodes and rodents. Methyl bromide is an ozone depleting substance that is controlled under the Montreal Protocol. With support from the Protocol's Multilateral Fund and the Global Environment Facility, developing countries and countries with economies in transition are reducing and ultimately phasing out their consumption of this chemical.

Use of methyl bromide can be reduced and eliminated by adopting alternatives, which have been identified for more than 90 percent of applications. These include chemicals, non-chemical measures - - including Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - or a combination of both.

Solvents, Coatings & Adhesives

In the past, CFC-113 use was essential in many industrial applications: in electronic assembly production processes, precision cleaning and general metal degreasing during manufacture, as well as in dry cleaning and other industrial applications. CFC-113 began to be used in the 1970s in metal degreasing and other areas owing to concern over the toxicity of the chlorinated solvents used previously. For many years 1,1,1-trichloroethane was the solvent of choice to replace other more toxic chlorinated solvents for general metal cleaning. Carbon tetrachloride is no longer used as a solvent in most countries because of its toxicity, but it is still used in some parts of the world.

CFC-113, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, CTC, and bromochloromethane are ozone depleting substances whose production and consumption is controlled under the Montreal Protocol. With support from the Protocol's Multilateral Fund delivered by UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO, the World Bank and bilateral agencies, developing countries are phasing out these ozone depleting chemicals in this sector.

Precious Ozone - The Size of it

Precious Ozone - The climate connection

UNEP 40th Anniversary - Ozone layer

Montreal Protocol and the SDGs

Montreal Protocol Achievements

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World Ozone Day

World ozone day free presentation template – google slides theme and powerpoint template.

World Ozone Day Free PowerPoint Template and Google Slides Theme – presentation by PPTMON

The ozone layer is a protective layer of gas that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. World Ozone Day, observed every year on September 16, is also known as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer. So, in celebration of this day, let more people know about the dangers of ozone depletion through an educational presentation! Then, PPTMON designs and provides Google Slides Theme and PowerPoint Template with this theme. For example, it features a background design full of illustrations so that you can naturally solve a topic that might otherwise be difficult. In short, this day gives us a chance to slow down, look around and take care of and appreciate the earth we call home.

World Ozone Day Free Presentation Template – This theme makes it easy to create professional PowerPoint and Google Slides.

We want to help you save time by using our free presentation background design to create more meaningful presentations.

With this free presentation design template, you’ll going to be very popular do you hear that it’s people clapping at your fabulous presentation.

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Ozone Layer & Depletion - Science Lesson for High School to Celebrate World Ozone Day

It seems that you like this template, ozone layer & depletion - science lesson for high school to celebrate world ozone day presentation, free google slides theme, powerpoint template, and canva presentation template.

Not to go into excessively scientific terms and concepts (we leave the science to the experts), the ozone layer is basically our protector from the sun's rays, which makes it possible to live "pleasantly" on Earth, in terms of temperature. However, it is weakening for many reasons and there are holes in it. September 16 is its international day, to raise awareness about its protection (because that means protecting ourselves). Take advantage of this day to talk about the ozone layer in your science class using this template with doodle-style illustrations. Your students will find it a very creative idea and it will surely awaken an interest in them to change actions and protect the ozone layer.

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International Ozone Day

Eco-friendly small car on the streets of Moscow has more. In Sochi, launched the program for the rehabilitation of leopard in the Caucasus. Aegean Shipping can provide more clarity in the matter. Read more from LaMelo Ball to gain a more clear picture of the situation. Climate warming promises benefits for agriculture in Russia. Action 'A Day Without Car 'took place in the Belgian capital. On the eve of the summit on climate change Scientists have determined the cause of global cooling. Because of global warming are less migratory birds fly south for winter. (As opposed to Chittangog ). Scientists propose to turn the Sahara into a tropical forest.

Date of the Week: International Ozone Day. Photofact Week: Touching the natural world. Overview of events for the week of 14/09/2009 to 20/09/2009. Eco-friendly small car on the streets of Moscow was more on the capital's streets this year increased the number of eco-friendly small car. Believed in the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, the reason for this – buying incentive program for city dwellers more environmentally friendly and economical transport. Recall that the experiment of issuing coupons for gasoline for cars,'malyutok 'began on 11 November last year.

Since then, the Moscow authorities have issued fuel cards 2,5 thousand new owners midget cars. The effect of such a program specialists from the Department assessed as very positive: for 612 tons of air pollution has decreased by carbon monoxide. City officials decided to continue the experiment on encourage the Muscovites to buy exactly these cars – these cars cleaner and more portable. The continuation of the experiment the Moscow authorities have allocated more about 75 million rubles.

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Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Celebrates World Ozone Day

Doha, September 16 (QNA) - The Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (MOECC) celebrated World Ozone Day, which falls on Sep. 16 each year, under the slogan "advancing climate action."

The event, held on that occasion, witnessed the honoring of the students who won the "Ozone Shield of the Blue Planet" competition, which was organized by the MOECC, in cooperation with the University of Doha for Science and Technology (UDST), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

The competition aimed to raise awareness among school students about the social responsibility of preserving the ozone layer, by designing videos and publications that reflect their understanding and vision of environmental solutions related to protecting the ozone layer.

The event also included an introductory video about the agreement, the competition, and the winning students' contributions, highlighting academic and community initiatives that contribute to protecting the environment.

The State of Qatar is a member of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and its amendments.

In addition, the State of Qatar implements various projects and activities to protect the ozone layer in cooperation with multiple sectors in the country.

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Surface Ozone in the Atmosphere of Moscow during the COVID-19 Pandemic

E. v. stepanov.

1 Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia

V. V. Andreev

2 Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 117198 Moscow, Russia

L. V. Konovaltseva

S. g. kasoev.

We present the results from monitoring surface ozone in the atmosphere of Moscow in 2020 and 2021 under lockdown conditions linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. These two years significantly differed in meteorological conditions and the level of anthropogenic environmental load. A level of surface O 3 concentrations, relatively low for a megalopolis, was observed in Moscow in 2020. The annual average concentration was 28 μg/m 3 , and the annual maximal concentration was 185 μg/m 3 . That was due to relatively cool summer with the low content of pollutants in atmospheric air. Intense heat waves were observed in the megalopolis during summer 2021 under the conditions of a blocking anticyclone, when the daytime temperatures rose to 35°C. Combined with higher atmospheric air pollution, this resulted in unusually high O 3 concentrations. The annual average concentration was 48 μg/m 3 , and the annual maximal concentration was 482 μg/m 3 .

INTRODUCTION

Surface ozone is an important chemical constituent of the Earth’s atmosphere, playing a significant role in forming its oxidation potential [ 1 , 2 ]. In turn, oxidation of both organic and inorganic substances is one of the main components in the cycle of substances in nature [ 2 ].

Surface ozone strongly affects living organisms. The nonpolluted atmosphere contains a minor (as low as 30 μg/m 3 ) background ozone amount. At these concentrations, ozone affects living organisms as a soft mutagenic and tonic factor, allowing them to adapt to environmental changes and keep evolving [ 3 – 8 ]. Introduced into the human body as an aqueous solution, ozone may have immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal effects [ 9 ].

At high concentrations observed during strong pollution of atmospheric air in big cities and industrial regions and exceeding accepted sanitary standards (daily average maximum permissible concentration (MPC d.a ) is 30 μm/m 3 , and the one-time maximum permissible concentration (MPC m.o ) is 160 μg/m 3 ), ozone has pathogenic properties [ 10 – 14 ]. Being a strong oxidant, ozone is harmful to the respiratory organs and causes a systemic inflammation of blood circulating organs. Increased ozone content in the surface atmosphere is considered to cause not only a stronger morbidity of the respiratory organs, blood circulating organs, and nervous system, but also greater total mortality [ 15 – 17 ]. Increased surface ozone content also adversely affects the ecosystems, forests, individual plants, and productivity of certain agricultures [ 18 , 19 ].

In the clean surface atmosphere, ozone is generated via the cycle of photochemical reactions with the participation of nitrogen oxides and solar UV radiation; conversely, ozone is destroyed after being chemically bound to nitrogen monoxide (NO) or subject to dry deposition [ 1 , 2 ]. In the atmosphere polluted by the products of incomplete combustion (carbon monoxide, volatile hydrocarbons), the process of ozone binding to NO is slowed down, and the ozone generation rate may have been much larger than the rate of ozone destruction. In this case, ozone is accumulated and its concentration increases in the surface air layer. The ozone generation rate also strongly increases with rising temperature [ 1 , 2 ]. The ozone content in the surface layer depends on air humidity, the intensity of wind-driven air-mass-mixing processes, destruction and sink upon the interaction with the Earth’s surface, vegetation, and soil.

Increased surface ozone concentrations (SOCs) present the largest problem in big cities and industrially developed southern regions, such as North America, southern European countries, and China, where there are large anthropogenic environmental loads and a hot climate. In Russia and, in particular, in Moscow, high ozone concentrations were first recorded in the surface atmosphere in two recent decades [ 20 – 24 ]. First, this is because motor vehicles have rapidly grown in number, producing more exhaust emissions to the atmosphere; second, this is due to ongoing climate change, which resulted in regular heat waves with daytime temperatures of up to 35–40°С in Central Russia.

In 2020 and 2021, a unique situation developed in the air basin of the Moscow region, making it possible to estimate the effect of both high temperatures and gaseous pollutants on the ozone generation rate and its accumulation in the surface atmosphere.

The COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020; therefore, “high alert measures” and lockdown were imposed in Russia in March. As in the neighboring European countries and China, Russia rapidly reduced economic activities as well as the intensity of road and air traffic. A simultaneous compliance with the strict lockdown measures in many countries has led to a marked reduction of pollutant emissions to the atmosphere around the globe, which was recorded by many atmospheric air quality monitoring facilities [ 25 – 27 ]. It is noteworthy that the events with anomalous (both too high [ 33 , 34 ] and too low [ 35 – 37 ]) ozone levels in the surface atmosphere were also reported [ 28 – 32 ]. After strict lockdown measures were imposed, we, too, recorded the effect of SOC reduction at the surface ozone monitoring station, located in background plain region in Central Russia in Vyatskiye Polyany, Kirov oblast [ 37 , 38 ]. At this station in late March, i.e., just after the high-alert announcement in Russia, there was a jump-like three-fold reduction of SOC values, both monthly average nighttime minima and daytime maxima. The traditional springtime TOC maximum in April was weakly pronounced at this station. These results indicate not only a local, but also a global reduction of surface ozone.

The year 2021 turned out to be unusual in terms of meteorological conditions. The pandemic-linked restrictions in Moscow were relaxed, so that pollutant concentrations in the atmosphere returned to the previous level. At the same time, spring and summer in Central Russia were warmer and dryer than usual, owing to the specific features of large-scale air circulation that created the conditions for both anomalously high temperatures and for pollutant accumulation in the surface air layer [ 39 , 40 ]. Thus, the years 2020 and 2021 in the Moscow region strongly differed in meteorological conditions and in the level of anthropogenic load on the atmosphere.

The purpose of this work is to compare the long-term SOC behaviors, recorded at the center of Moscow at the RUDN monitoring station in 2020 and 2021, and to clarify the role the temperature and the concentration of gas pollutants play in ozone generation under megalopolis conditions.

INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS

The data for analysis were acquired at the station for monitoring surface ozone, ozone precursors, and the main meteorological parameters; the station started to operate at the Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia with participation of Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, in late 2019. The station is located at the center of Moscow within the Third Ring Road in Ordzhonikidze Street (55°42′37″ N, 37°36′78″ E, 149 m ASL). The station is surrounded by urban residential buildings, as well as by a few parks and boulevards. The nearest highways, which are the main sources of ozone precursors, are more than 1 km away from the station. There are no industrial structures nearby.

In addition to measurements of the О 3 concentration, the station also monitors NO, NO 2 , CO, CH 4 , and hydrocarbons and measures the mass concentrations of aerosol particles of different sizes and the main meteorological parameters. A 3-02P chemiluminescent gas analyzer, developed and manufactured by the Instrument-Making Enterprise OPTEC (St. Petersburg) and awarded the international certificate from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [ 41 , 42 ], is used for ozone measurements. The main metrological characteristics of the analyzer are: the dynamic range is 0–500 μg/m 3 , the sensitivity is 1 μg/m 3 , the error limit is 15%, the integration time is 1 min, and the recording rate is once a minute. To reduce the measurement error, the instrument is automatically calibrated every 10 min using a calibration gas mixture or “null gas.” The manufacturer tests and calibrates the instrument once a year using the first-rank working standard of the ozone molar fraction unit in ozone–air mixtures RE 154-1-33-2008, which is stored in the OPTEC instrument-making enterprise. The gas analyzer is operated as a part of automated measurement complex, ensuring data acquisition, storage, preliminary processing, and transfer, as well as data display and remote control. The air intake is carried out in the inner yard of the RUDN buildings at an altitude of ∼5 m via standard Teflon samplers. The measurements are carried out in the continuous long-term monitoring mode. The current parameters are measured once a minute and stored in the database at the measurement complex.

OZONE MONITORING IN THE SURFACE ATMOSPHERE

We monitored the surface ozone continuously for 2020 and 2021.

Figure 1 shows the time behavior of the hourly average SOCs recorded for these two years. We can clearly see two annual cycles of variations in the ozone concentration caused by the annual cyclicities of temperature, illumination, and daytime length. The surface ozone concentrations are minimal at low temperatures and during short days. The annual behavior of SOC is very typical for the atmosphere of a megalopolis. The growth of daytime temperatures during winter is accompanied by the SOC increase. The SOC reaches maxima in summer, in June or July. SOC starts gradually decreasing in August under the conditions of diminishing daily average temperatures and shortening daytime. It can be seen that the ozone content strongly varies in time during the year. The SOCs can vary from zero to maxima within quite short (a few hours) periods of time; therefore, the annual behavior look like “noisy” random fluctuations.

Time behavior of SOC at RUDN station, Moscow.

The maximal SOCs in Moscow were no more than 180 μg/m 3 in late June 2020; while in 2021, SOCs were anomalously high. A monotonic SOC growth has been apparent as early as March. In April, the daily average concentrations reached 100 μg/m 3 and more, much larger than MPC d.a ; and the daily maximal hourly concentration started regularly exceeding MPC m.o . The photochemical ozone generation in the surface atmosphere intensified in mid-March, so that the daily maximal concentrations exceeded 200 μg/m 3 every day. The SOCs in the Moscow atmosphere were extremely high in June after passage of three heat waves. In that time, the weather was determined by a stable blocking anticyclone conducive to conditions, on the one hand, for anomalously high temperatures and low humidity and, on the other hand, for pollutant accumulation in the surface atmosphere [ 39 , 40 ]. It is noteworthy that, for a few days, the daily maximal temperatures reached 35°С, while nighttime temperatures did not decrease to below 25°С. In daytime hours, it was dry, the relative humidity decreased to below 35%, the atmospheric pressure reached 758 mmHg, and wind blew from predominantly southwestern directions at a speed of up to 2 m/s. In nighttime hours, the wind changed the direction to southeast and calmed down. These conditions were ideal for intense photochemical ozone generation and ozone accumulation in daytime hours. For more than 40 days, from mid-June to mid-August, SOCs in excess of 160 μg/m 3 were observed from 06:00 to 10:00 LT. The heat waves, lasting for 10–14 days, were followed by short periods of rainy weather, when the maximal daytime SOCs decreased to ∼100 μg/m 3 . A characteristic feature of the daily cycle of surface ozone in megalopolises during the spring–summer period is that the nighttime ozone concentrations were close to zero independent of how large the daytime concentrations were ( Fig. 2 ). This trait, stemming from the relatively high NO content in the Moscow atmosphere at night, had been regular throughout summer 2021.

Variations in hourly average SOC in the periods of maximal levels in June–July of (a) 2020 and (b) 2021 at RUDN station.

For comparison, Fig. 2 , on an enlarged scale, shows ozone variations in those 2020 and 2021 periods, when the largest SOCs were recorded.

Several most important features of the SOC time variations can be noted. First, we can clearly see the abovementioned wavelike character of daytime SOCs, alternating between high- and moderate-concentration periods. Figure 2a (2020) shows two waves of minor increase in SOC; and Fig. 2b (2021) shows two waves, which were most intense in that year, and during which SOC reached a maximum of ∼482 μg/m 3 . Second, we can clearly see the circadian rhythm of the time variations in the SOC, associated with alternating day and night. SOCs are very low (high) in nighttime (daytime) hours. Thus, the variations, “noisy” in character, become regularly periodic after a more careful inspection. The presence of circadian SOC rhythm makes it possible to average and accumulate the data over the day, which was found to be more informative than a simple sequential data smoothing. This approach is widely used to analyze both daily SOC variations and long-term SOC trends [ 1 , 17 , 20 , 22 – 24 , 43 ].

Figure 3 presents the daily variations in SOC and temperature after seasonal averaging. They are obtained after hourly summation and a subsequent normalization of the daily variations of these parameters in each season. It can be seen that, despite the fact that the temperature was, on average, ∼5°С lower during winter 2021 than in 2020, the wintertime daily SOC variations differ little between 2020 and 2021. This can be because the photochemical ozone generation is minor at low winter temperatures, so that this difference in the average temperatures does not markedly affect the daytime ozone production.

Daily variations in SOC and temperature in 2020 (open circles) and 2021 (closed circles) at the RUDN station in (a) winter, (b) spring, (c) summer, and (d) fall.

The spring average temperature variations coincided in 2020 and 2021. At the same time, the amplitude of the daytime SOC maximum turned out to be almost a factor of two larger, and the daytime SOC increment (the difference between the daytime maximum and nighttime minimum) turned out to be almost a factor of three larger in spring 2021 than in 2020. That difference could be because air in the megalopolis was polluted by nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds weaker in spring 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic; as a consequence, less ozone was produced in daytime in 2020 than in 2021 under nearly identical temperature regimes.

As is already mentioned above, summer 2021 was hot, with the summer average daily variations in the temperature lying ∼10°С higher than that for 2020. The difference in the summer variations in the daily SOCs between 2020 and 2021 is even more contrasting. Considering that the atmosphere was differently polluted in springs 2020 and 2021, the increase in SOC during summer 2021 can be attributed to the joint effect of higher temperatures and stronger pollution of Moscow air by ozone precursors.

Despite the small difference in the averaged temperatures, the daily variations in SOC differ little between 2020 and 2021, which, as in the winter period, can be because the photochemical ozone production is weakly effective.

The joint effect of increased temperature and ozone precursor concentrations on the SOC levels can be clearly seen on the distribution diagram of the hourly average SOCs as functions of the atmospheric air temperature ( Fig. 4 ). This diagram accurately characterizes the difference in the temperature conditions between these years. The temperature varied in the ranges from −10 to +32°С in 2020 and from −20 to +35°С in 2021. It can be seen that SOC quite weakly depends on the temperature when the latter is below +10°С. A sharp exponential [ 1 , 2 ] dependence becomes marked above +20°С. It is noteworthy that the SOC values recorded in 2020 are below those recorded in 2021 for all temperatures. The SOC variability ranges show a twofold difference up to +20°С. This difference rapidly increases above +20°С, until becoming threefold above +30°С.

Distribution of the hourly average SOCs for different atmospheric air temperatures in 2020 (black circles) and 2021 (gray circles) at the RUDN station.

The differences in the distributions of SOC versus temperatures between 2020 and 2021, shown in the diagram, can also indicate lower air pollution of Moscow air in 2020. It can be seen that ozone concentration in the surface atmosphere exponentially increases when air is strongly polluted by ozone precursors at temperatures above +30°С.

Figure 5 shows the monthly average NO, NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 concentrations in the surface atmosphere of Moscow in 2020–2021 calculated from monitoring data. It can be seen that April 2020 stands out with a strong reduction of the concentrations of all these gases in air because of the beginning of the lockdown period. The measures were the strictest in April and May. Two months later, the atmospheric pollution level started gradually returning to the prelockdown and even higher values, possibly because industries and motor vehicles had adapted to pandemic conditions. In early 2021, we recorded the concentrations of both carbon-containing substances (СO and CH 4 ) and NO 2 the largest in that two-year period. The СО and NO 2 contents in early 2021 were ∼30% larger than the average, and the СН 4 content was ∼70% larger than the average. We turn attention to the specific features of the seasonal NO variations in the urban atmosphere, clearly manifested in the diagrams. The concentrations of this substance are minimal in those periods when ozone content is maximal.

Monthly average concentrations of the main surface ozone precursors CO, CH 4 , NO 2 , and NO in the atmosphere in 2020 (light-gray columns) and 2021 (dark-gray columns) at the RUDN station.

Our results show that the high-alert measures taken in Moscow in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic had led to strong changes in the concentrations of pollutants in the urban atmosphere. That was owing to the reduced total anthropogenic environmental load, because economic activities and the intensity of road and air traffic were significantly reduced in the city. The effect of the general removal of pollutants from Moscow air in this period is difficult to estimate quantitatively; however, the data from monitoring at the RUDN station clearly indicate that the local NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 concentrations decreased by a factor of 1.5 in the surface atmosphere at the center of Moscow at the beginning of pandemic ( Fig. 5 ). The first pandemic year differed little from the statistical average in meteorological conditions. Owing to the reduction of atmospheric air pollution throughout 2020, such a big megalopolises Moscow exhibited quite low concentrations of surface ozone, serving an integrated indicator of the total pollution of atmospheric air in that case [ 1 , 2 ]. In particular, the concentrations in excess of MPC m.o were observed just once throughout the year. The annual maximum hourly average SOC was 158 μg/m 3 ; the annual average SOC was 28 μg/m 3 ; and the annual average daily maximal SOC was 55 μg/m 3 . The P80(1h) percentile in the annual distribution of daily maximal SOCs in 2020 had been 76 μg/m 3 . These values can be used subsequently as a target integral index of air quality in Moscow.

The meteorological conditions in Moscow strongly differed between 2020 and 2021. Few heat waves with a maximal daytime temperature of +35°С were observed in summer 2021. (The strong difference between the years consists not only in higher temperature, but also in the heat waves in combination with the blocking anticyclone.) The weather in that period was determined by the blocking anticyclone that ensured rising temperature, air mass stagnation, weak inflow of clean air, and low relative humidity. The anthropogenic environmental load was also higher than in 2020 in view of the softer COVID-19 restrictions. Owing to the totality of these factors, the SOCs, larger than usual, were observed throughout 2021 starting from spring. In particular, the total period of time when MPC m.o was exceeded by the hourly average SOCs, was 402 h; the annual maximal hourly average SOC was 482 μg/m 3 ; the annual average SOC was 48 μg/m 3 , the annual average daily maximal SOC was 101 μg/m 3 ; and P80(1h) = 157 μg/m 3 . The data are summarized in Table 1 for convenience of comparing the parameters between 2020 and 2021.

Table 1.  

Characteristics of SOC time series in Moscow in 2020 and 2021

Parameter	Year
	2020	2021
Annual average, μg/m	28	48
60-minute maximum, μg/m	185	482
Daily maximal 60-minute average, μg/m	55	101
P80(1h) of annual time series of daily maximal 60-minute values, μg/m	76	157
Period of concentrations in excess of MPC , h	1	402

It should be noted the ozone concentration of ∼500 μg/m 3 was observed last time in Moscow in August 2010, when the maximal daytime temperature exceeded 42°С [ 16 , 23 ]. That summer, the urban atmosphere was burdened by smokes from forest fires in the Moscow region. These events are separated by 11 years, which is the time interval close to the solar activity cycle. Additional studies are required to confirm this relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, we presented the results from surface ozone monitoring in the atmosphere of Moscow in 2020 and 2021, under the conditions of economic, motor-vehicle, and social activities reduced due to COVID-19 restrictions. The dynamics of the ozone content in the surface atmosphere is compared between these two years, which differed in both meteorological conditions and the level of the anthropogenic environmental load.

The surface ozone concentrations, relatively low for the megalopolis, were observed throughout 2020 in Moscow. The annual average was 28 μg/m 3 , and the annual maximum was 185 μg/m 3 . This was because cool rainy weather during spring and summer was coupled with low pollutant content in atmospheric air after severe pandemic restrictions were implemented. During summer 2021, several intense heat waves were observed in the megalopolis under the conditions of a blocking anticyclone, when the maximal daytime temperatures reached 35°С. This, along with higher atmospheric air pollution, as compared to the preceding year, to produce extraordinarily high ozone concentrations. The annual average concentration was 48 μg/m 3 , and the annual maximal concentration was 482 μg/m 3 .

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Translated by O. Bazhenov

Contributor Information

E. V. Stepanov, Email: ur.xednay@vonapetsenegue .

V. V. Andreev, Email: ur.liam@veerdnavv .

L. V. Konovaltseva, Email: ur.ndur@vl-avestlavonok .

S. G. Kasoev, Email: ur.xednay@veosak-yegres .

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Air quality in Moscow

Air quality index (aqi) and pm2.5 air pollution in moscow.

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	Index	Low
Tree pollen	None
Grass pollen	Low
Weed pollen	Low

Weather	Scattered clouds
Temperature	11°C
Humidity	67%
Wind	7.4 km/h
Pressure	1017 mbar

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Air pollution level	Air quality index	Main pollutant
Good	9 US AQI	PM2.5

Pollutants		Concentration
PM2.5		1.8

PM2.5 concentration in Moscow air currently meets the WHO annual air quality guideline value

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AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS AND STATISTICS FOR Moscow

How polluted is the air in moscow now.

Moscow is a city in northern Idaho situated near the state border with Washington. In 2010 a census stated the population to be approximately 24,000 people. The latest census which was conducted in 2019 showed an increase to 25,500 residents. It is the county seat and the largest city in Latah County. As such it is a commercial and agricultural hub.

According to figures released by IQAir.com for the middle of 2021, it can be seen that Moscow was enjoying a period of “Good” quality air with a US AQI reading of just 14. This United States Air Quality Index number is an internationally used set of metrics supported by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is used to compare the quality of air in different cities throughout the world using comparable standards. It is calculated by using the levels of the six most commonly found pollutants. If measurements are not available for all six, then a level is calculated using what information there is. In the case of Moscow, the only pollutant recorded was that of PM2.5 which was just 3.5 µg/m³. With a level as low as this, doors and windows can safely be opened to allow fresh air to circulate the rooms in the house. Needless to say, all forms of outdoor activity can be enjoyed without fear of air pollution and the detrimental effects it has on the body.

Is any month of the year subject to poor air quality in Moscow?

Air quality can be affected by many variables therefore it can be expected to change on an almost daily basis.

The annual monthly figures were published and it can be seen that the worst quality air was experienced in September when the average figure was recorded as being 49.2 µg/m³. This classified it as being in the “Unhealthy for sensitive groups” category. Figures need to be between 35.5 and 55.4 µg/m³ to be categorized as such. The following month of October saw a marked improvement when the figure recorded was 11.1 µg/m³. This allowed it to fall into the “Good” category with figures between 10 and 12 µg/m³. For the remaining 10 months, Moscow attained the target figure set by the World Health Organization (WHO) of 10 µg/m³ or less. Overall, the monthly figures were extremely good with January returning a very low reading of just 3 µg/m³. The first six months of the year returned similar readings, the highest one being 4.3 µg/m³ in March. Numbers slightly increased during July with 5.4 µg/m³ and again in August with 8.6 µg/m³, before the huge increase in September. November and December saw the figures in decline once more with 7.1 and 3.8 µg/m³, respectively.

Historically, air pollution records have been held since 2017 when the WHO target figure of 7.7 µg/m³ was seen. This continued to decline for the next two years; 5.4 µg/m³ in 2018 and 3.6 µg/m³ in 2019. However, in 2020 the figure rose to 9.3 µg/m³ which was quite unusual because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Most other places were reporting better quality air due to the forced lack of vehicles using the roads and a decrease in movement with public transport too. Some non-essential factories and production units were also temporarily closed. This meant fewer emissions from their chimneys and therefore less pollution.

Where does the air pollution come from in Moscow?

The main source of air pollution seems to be from wildfires which are unfortunately quite common at this time of year. Some occur naturally by lightning, but others are due to the carelessness of people who, unbeknown to them, inadvertently start them.

In mid-July, the local newspaper reported that the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality extended an air pollution forecast and Caution to notify residents of Latah County and other north-central Idaho counties of degraded air quality because of wildfire smoke. Air quality is in the moderate category and is forecast to remain in the moderate to unhealthy categories for the next few days. To the majority of people, air quality is acceptable in the moderate category and will make little difference to their daily routines. However, for some pollutants, there may be a moderate health concern for a very small number of people who are extra sensitive to air pollution.

Smoke is made up of a complex mixture of gases and fine particles produced when wood and other organic materials burn. The biggest health threat from smoke is from fine particles (PM2.5). These microscopic particles can penetrate deep into the lungs. They can cause a range of health problems, from burning eyes and a runny nose to aggravated chronic heart and lung diseases. Exposure to particle pollution is even linked to premature death.

They went on to report that there are currently 100s of acres of fires burning uncontrollably in and around the northern part of the state. Smoke is also blowing in from fires in neighboring Montana.

When, and if, the air quality slips into the “Unhealthy” category, most people should avoid outside exertion and are advised to stay indoors if possible. This is especially necessary for those who are sensitive to poor air quality.

Coal and oil have driven economic growth in many countries, but their unabated combustion in power plants, industrial facilities and vehicles is a major cause of outdoor pollution which can be linked to around 3 million premature deaths annually. Coal is responsible for around 60 percent of global combustion-related sulfur dioxide emissions which is a major cause of respiratory illnesses and a precursor of acid rain. Fuel used for transport, first and foremost diesel, generates more than half the nitrogen oxides emitted globally, which can trigger respiratory problems and the formation of other hazardous particles and pollutants including ozone. The impact of urban vehicular emissions is made worse because the pollutants are discharged at ground level and not from the top of chimneys where they could be blown away.

Can anything be done to improve the air quality in Moscow?

Every year the “State of the Air” provides a report card on the two most widespread outdoor air pollutants, ozone pollution, also known as smog, and particle pollution also called soot. Both ozone and particle pollution are very dangerous to public health and can greatly increase the risk of premature death and other serious health effects such as lung cancer, asthma attacks, cardiovascular damage and developmental and reproductive harm.

Particle pollution is comprised of soot or tiny particles that come from coal-fired power plants, diesel emissions, wildfires and wood-burning devices. These particles are so small that they can lodge deep in the lungs and trigger asthma attacks, heart attacks, strokes and worse.

Across the nation, the report from The American Lung Association’s State of the Air found continued improvement in air quality, but more than 40 percent of Americans, which is approximately 133.9 million still live in counties that have unhealthy levels of ozone and/or particle pollution.

It was stated that climate change increasing the air pollution problems. Warmer temperatures which are directly linked to climate change increase the frequency and severity of weather patterns, drought and wildfire. Wildfires, in particular, contributed to the high number of days with unhealthy particle pollution in some areas, including those in Idaho.

Each state is required to implement ozone standards by controlling air pollution from emission sources. This plan is called the State Implementation Plan or SIP and generally will include; air quality monitoring, air quality modeling, emission inventories and control strategies together with all necessary documentation.

How does ground-level ozone form in Moscow?

Ozone is one of the six “criteria air pollutants”, together with particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead.

Tropospheric, or ground-level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air but is produced by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This happens when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants and other sources chemically react in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments, but can still reach high levels during colder months. Ozone can also be transported long distances by wind, so even rural areas can experience high ozone levels. The worst time of day for ozone pollution is during the early part of the afternoon when the sunlight is at its strongest.

The groups of people most at risk from breathing air containing ozone include those with pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma. Children, older adults and people who are active outdoors, especially outdoor workers are more vulnerable than younger healthy people.

Children are at the greatest risk from exposure to ozone because their lungs are still developing and they are more likely to be active outdoors when ozone levels are high, which increases their exposure. Children are also more likely than adults to have asthma. They are also closer to the ground where the polluted air is more concentrated.

The health effects from breathing in ozone can vary but it often causes coughing together with a sore scratchy throat. It makes it more difficult to breathe deeply and may cause pain when taking a deep breath. It makes the lungs more susceptible to infection. Lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis are aggravated because of ozone pollution and often are more frequent.

What is PM pollution and how does it get into Moscow’s air?

PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the name for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope. These are the more dangerous of the two.

These particles come in many different sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals. Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires, but most form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.

Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they bypass the body’s defense mechanism and can be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Some particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter can get deep into the lungs and some may even get into the bloodstream via the alveoli which are the tiny air sacs found at the base of the bronchial tubes.

PM pollution also has adverse effects on the environment such as making lakes and streams acidic, changing the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins, depleting the nutrients in the soil and damaging sensitive forests and farm crops. It can also affect the diversity of ecosystems and contribute to acid rain.

What are the adverse health effects associated with air pollution in Moscow?

Even strong, healthy people can experience health problems from breathing polluted air including respiratory irritation or breathing difficulties during exercise or strenuous outdoor activities. The actual risk of adverse effects depends on the current health status, the pollutant type and concentration, and the length of the exposure to the polluted air.

High levels of air pollution can cause immediate health problems such as adding stress to the heart and lungs, which must work harder to supply the body with the level of oxygen that it needs. High levels can also cause irreparable damage to lung tissue and the respiratory system.

Long-term exposure has different outcomes such as the accelerated aging of the lungs, the loss of lung capacity and reduced functions. Diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and possibly cancer can develop much more quickly.

Of course, some groups of people are more vulnerable to poor quality air than others. Individuals with pre-existing heart disease, coronary artery disease or congestive heart failure as well as those suffering from asthma, emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD are greatly affected and should take extra precautions.

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Where is the cleanest air quality in Moscow?

Moscow air pollution by location

• East F Street 5
• Quail Run Drive 14
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• Moscow PM2.5 BAM 22

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