thesis of basketball

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The effects of sport expertise and shot results on basketball players’ action anticipation

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Sports, Physical Education College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Social Sports, Physical Education College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China

• Yawei Li, 

• Published: January 6, 2020
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521
• Reader Comments

The purpose of the present cross-sectional study was to clarify the effects of sport expertise and shot results on the action anticipation of basketball players. Eighty-eight male subjects participated in this study, namely, 30 collegiate basketball players, 28 recreational basketball players and 30 non-athletes. Each participant performed a shot anticipation task in which he watched the shooting phase, rising phase, high point and falling phase of a free throw and predicted the fate of the ball. The results showed that the collegiate players and recreational players demonstrated higher accuracy than the non-athletes for the falling phase but not for the other temporal conditions. Analysis of the shot results demonstrated that for made shots, the collegiate players and recreational players provided more accurate predictions than the non-athletes. These results suggested that the experienced players required a sufficient amount of information to be able to make accurate judgements and demonstrated that the experts’ judgement bias for made shots was independent of the temporal condition.

Citation: Li Y, Feng T (2020) The effects of sport expertise and shot results on basketball players’ action anticipation. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227521. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521

Editor: William Marshall Land, University of Texas at San Antonio, UNITED STATES

Received: July 28, 2019; Accepted: December 19, 2019; Published: January 6, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Li, Feng. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: This work was supported by the National Social Science Found of China, grants No.19CTY013 awarded to Yawei Li and Tian Feng ( http://www.npopss-cn.gov.cn/ ). Humanities and social science research project of Henan Province Office of Education, grants No.2020-ZDJH-427 to Tian Feng ( http://www.haedu.gov.cn ). Research project of henan social science federation, grants SKL-2019-1955 to Yawei Li ( http://www.hnpopss.gov.cn ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Action anticipation refers to the ability to predict the outcome of an event [ 1 ]. In contrast to racquet sports (such as tennis or badminton) in which a server usually decides the ball direction before starting his or her action, a basketball shooter can never be certain of the shot result until the final second. Thus, illustrating the development of shot anticipation ability in basketball is critical. Anticipating the outcome of an action, such as predicting whether a basketball will hit or miss the basket, directly affects the performance of an athlete. Accurate judgement helps a player plan his or her subsequent action (such as obtaining a rebound or playing defence) accordingly. Thus, the main goal of this study was to investigate the influence of sport expertise and shot results on the action anticipation of basketball players.

Studies have shown that sport expertise improves action anticipation ability. Aglioti and Cesari [ 2 ] asked basketball athletes, spectators (coaches or journalists) and novices to predict the success of free throws and found that the athletes responded earlier and more accurately than the other two groups of participants. Similarly, Uchida and Mizuguchi [ 3 ] compared the anticipation performance of experienced basketball players and novices observing a basketball free throw. The results demonstrated that the correct response rate among the experienced players was significantly greater than random chance (50%) and that of the novices, while the novices’ correct response rates were close to random chance. The distinct visual strategies used by athletes and novices may account for the observed differences. The researchers found that the basketball players focused more on body cues (i.e., the shooter’s knee, wrist and finger joint angles), while the novice group focused more on the ball [ 2 , 3 ].

Temporal information has been confirmed to play a necessary role in predicting outcomes, and the advantage of experts has been revealed in early time phases. Wu and Zeng [ 4 ] divided the time course of a free throw into three different phases with 11 sequential pictures as follows: the basketball leaving the model player’s hand (3 pictures), the basketball reaching the climax of its trajectory (6 pictures), and the basketball approaching the basket (9 pictures). The participants were required to predict the ball’s fate based on varying temporal information under different temporal conditions. The researchers found that when the participants observed 3 or 6 pictures, the athletes achieved higher prediction accuracy than the novices, indicating that experts utilize early cues better than novices when making predictions without complete information. Consistently, studies involving tennis or table tennis have shown that regional-level athletes use early valid information and achieve higher prediction accuracy than college-level and novice groups [ 5 , 6 ].

The result of a shot may be related to the anticipation advantage of elites, although most previous studies have concentrated only on the results of anticipation (i.e., correct or incorrect). The interaction between the actual results and anticipation yields the following four situations: true positive (correct prediction that a shot would be successful), false positive (incorrect prediction that a shot would be successful), true negative (correct prediction that a shot would be unsuccessful), and false negative (incorrect prediction that a shot was unsuccessful). Some studies have sought to determine the effect of shot results on anticipation at different visual angles. Cañal-Bruland and Balch [ 7 ] asked basketball players and observers to perform and observe shots. Both the players’ and observers’ vision was occluded at the time of the ball’s release, and they were asked to predict the ball’s fate. The authors found that the players were better at judging their own shots as “in” than judging others’ shots. To the best of our knowledge, only subjects who lack experience may have worse prediction accuracy than random chance (50%). Interestingly, a recent study by Maglott and Chiasson [ 8 ] found that for missed shots, collegiate shooters had worse prediction accuracy for their own shots than recreational shooters, and their prediction accuracy was significantly worse than random chance. Moreover, signal detection theory implies that collegiate players show a higher bias towards predicting that the shot result is “in”.

This judgement bias seems to be caused by the presence of the "regulatory fit" effect [ 9 ]. According to the theory of regulatory focus, two types of individual focus exist, namely, promotion focus and prevention focus [ 9 ]. Individuals with a promotion focus are eager to succeed and adopt more positive behavioural strategies, while individuals with a prevention focus are more inclined to avoid failure and adopt conservative behavioural strategies [ 10 ]. The effect emerges when the action strategy is consistent with one’s focus. Moreover, research conducted by Memmert and Unkelbach [ 11 ] shows that three-point shooting in basketball is more likely to be a task involving a promotion focus, and athletes exhibit better behavioural performance when matching with the action strategy. Therefore, predicting a shot as “in” is a positive strategy that may fit experts’ promotion focus, cause a regulatory fit, and thus improve their accuracy. In contrast, novices are more likely to have a prevention focus and exhibit superior performance when the ball is out.

Concerning the influence of the shot result, some important questions have been raised, but the answers remain unclear. Notably, experts and novices show different anticipation abilities in predicting the shot results of “in” and “out”. Will athletes exhibit an advantage in predicting successful shots when the shots are divided into varying time phases? Will the performance of athletes and novices change under different conditions of temporal occlusion? We sought to answer these questions by evaluating three groups of individuals with varying levels of basketball expertise (collegiate players, recreational players and non-athletes) and investigating the effect of shot results on action anticipation in different time phases. Both recreational players and non-athletes were included to determine whether a certain amount of expertise may confer a prediction advantage. We hypothesized that (1) compared to the non-athletes, the collegiate players and recreational players will show superior anticipation performance under the early temporal condition(s) and that the collegiate players will outperform the recreational players under the early temporal condition(s); (2) under the early temporal condition(s) of made shots, both collegiate players and recreational players will perform better than the non-athletes and that the collegiate players will be more accurate than the recreational players; and (3) for missed shots, the two experienced groups will provide more accurate predictions than the non-athletes under the early temporal conditions and that the collegiate players will outperform the recreational players.

Materials and methods

Ethical approval.

This study was carried out ethically and was approved by the Ethical Committee of Physical Education College of Zhengzhou University (No. 2019001). The individual in this manuscript has given written informed consent (as outlined in PLOS consent form) to publish these case details.

Participants

Eight-eight male subjects participated in this study, including 30 collegiate players (age: 21.53±0.97 years, height: 1.87±0.06 m, mass: 91.3±16.9 kg), 28 recreational players (age: 21.14±0.85 years, height: 1.79±0.04 m, mass: 77.6±14.7 kg) and 30 non-athletes (age: 21.00±1.15 years, height: 1.74±0.06 m, mass: 64.9±9.9 kg). The collegiate players participated on the basketball team of the Physical Education College of Zhengzhou University and practised 10.61±2.40 hours per week. The recreational players were collegiate track and field, boxing, rowing and judo athletes. These players participated in basketball games recreationally for 3.20±1.55 hours per week. The non-athletes were university students who had never participated in any sports training. The three groups did not vary in age, F (2, 83) = 2.23, p = 0.11, η p 2 = 0.51. Informed consent regarding the purpose and methods of the study and the obligations, responsibilities and rights of the subjects was obtained prior to the experiment.

Notably, we interrupted the complete sequence of each throw at one of four possible clip durations. We used continuous pictures rather than a video for the experimental stimuli since the selected pictures provided important information (for anticipation of the ball being “in” or “out”) that was more stable than information provided by a video. Two professional right-handed male athletes were required to shoot 60 free throws after warming up. All shots were recorded by a digital camera (Canon EOS 5D Mark IV, focal length of 3.5 mm). The camera height was 1.70 metres. Each shot was recorded at a speed of 6 frames per second from when the player held the ball to when the ball hit (or missed) the basket. Finally, at total of 40 free throws were selected according to the flight phase of the ball, including 20 made shots and 20 missed shots.

According to temporal information, the flight phase of a basketball and previous research results, each shot was divided into the following four temporal conditions: (1) the shooting phase, (2) the rising phase, (3) the high point, and (4) the falling phase. The final two pictures (pictures 11 and 12) were excluded from the experimental stimulus set to prevent the subjects from seeing the shot results. The exposure time for each picture was 167 ms, which was the same as the time required to take the pictures (6 pictures per second). Table 1 shows the characteristics of each temporal condition (the number of pictures, presentation time and ball position), and Fig 1 presents an example of the experimental stimuli.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

Continuous pictures of free-throw shooting as shown to the subjects. The pictures depict the time from when the player held the ball to the time when the ball hit (or missed) the basket. Each picture is presented for 167 ms, and the red line depicts when the shot stops under the 4 conditions of the temporal experimental stimuli.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.g001

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.t001

The experiment was conducted in a quiet room at the Physical Education College of Zhengzhou University, and each participant was tested individually under the supervision of an experimenter. The participants completed a questionnaire regarding their individual information (i.e., sex, age, training year, height, mass, and training hours per week) and then participated in an action anticipation task. In the experiment, the participants were seated in front of a screen (23.8 inches) at a distance of 60 cm. A two-alternative forced choice task requiring the participants to predict the result of a free throw was conducted. The task began with a black cross-shaped fixation point on a white background displayed at the centre of the screen for 2,000 ms. Then, continuous pictures of a free throw were displayed, and each picture was presented for 167 ms at a resolution of 1024 x 682 pixels. After viewing all photos within each trial, the participants predicted the fate of the ball (made or missed by pressing the “F” key or the “J” key, respectively) quickly with the goal of being accurate. Responses submitted more than 3,000 ms after presentation of the stimulus were considered errors. The subsequent trial started immediately following completion of the previous trial. After reading the standardized task instructions, the subjects were asked to complete 15 practice trials with feedback (including 4, 6, 8 and 10 pictures). The pictures used in the practice trials were not used in the formal experiment. If a participant’s accuracy during the practice trials did not exceed 60%, i.e., the subject made more than 6 incorrect judgements, then he did not pass the practice session and was required to perform an additional practice session. Two collegiate players, two recreational players and five non-athletes required two practice sessions to meet the requirement. One collegiate player and one non-athlete required three practice sessions to meet the requirement. The experiment included 160 trials (40 shots×4 temporal conditions, 668 ms, 1002 ms, 1336 ms and 1670 ms), and the 40 shots included 20 successful shots and 20 missed shots under each temporal condition. All trials were divided into 8 blocks, and each block included 20 shots (both successful and missed) under one of the four conditions. The experiment was designed and displayed with E-prime 2.0 (Psychology Software Tools, Inc., Pennsylvania, USA). The response keys for the made and missed shots were counterbalanced across the subjects, and no feedback was provided during the experimental trials. A 30-second break was provided between each block. The entire experiment lasted approximately 50 min.

Statistical analyses

Assessing the reaction time of the participants is difficult because the participants were able to make their decisions before the option to press the key became available, and each prediction was made after the picture disappeared. Therefore, only the accuracy results were evaluated. The accuracies in the three groups under each temporal condition exhibited normal distributions ( z < .803, p >.539 in all instances). To test Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 regarding the performance of the three groups under different temporal conditions and shot results, a mixed-design three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) model with accuracy as the dependent variable, group (collegiate players, recreational players, and non-athletes) as the between-subjects factor, and temporal condition (668 ms, 1002 ms, 1336 ms and 1670 ms) and shot result (made shots and missed shots) as the within-subjects factors was calculated. Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied when the assumption of sphericity was violated, and Bonferroni-corrected post hoc t -tests were used to identify the main effects and interactions.

The ANOVA of accuracy indicated significant main effects of the temporal condition, F (3, 255) = 65.20, p <0.001, η p 2 = 0.43, and shot result, F (1,85) = 59.15, p <0.001, η p 2 = 0.41, but not group, F (2, 85) = 1.40, p = 0.253, η p 2 = 0.03. The interaction between the temporal condition and group was significant, F (6, 255) = 5.69, p <0.001, η p 2 = 0.12. The post hoc tests of accuracy under the four temporal conditions per group revealed that under the 1670-ms condition, the collegiate players ( M = 0.71, SD = 0.11) showed better accuracy than the non-athletes ( M = 0.59, SD = 0.10, p <0.001), but the recreational players ( M = 0.65, SD = 0.11) did not differ from the other two groups of participants ( p >0.112 in all instances). No significant difference was found among the three groups under any other temporal conditions ( p >0.173 in all instances, see Fig 2 .).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.g002

Additionally, a marginally significant interaction was found between the shot result and group, F (2, 85) = 3.02, p = 0.054, η p 2 = 0.07. Fig 3 shows the results of the post hoc tests. Under the made shot condition, the collegiate players were superior to the non-athletes (collegiate players: M = 0.69, SD = 0.13, non-athletes: M = 0.60, SD = 0.16, p <0.05), but the recreational players ( M = 0.64, SD = 0.11) did not differ from the other two groups of participants ( p >0.440 in all instances). For the missed shot condition, no significant differences between the groups were found (collegiate players: M = 0.42, SD = 0.12, recreational players: M = 0.44, SD = 0.11, non-athletes: M = 0.48, SD = 0.14, p >0.243 in all instances).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.g003

The interaction between temporal condition and shot result was significant, F (3, 255) = 9.54, p <0.001, η p 2 = 0.10, and post hoc tests showed that all participants predicted the made shots ( M = 0.65, SD = 0.14) better than the missed shots ( M = 0.45, SD = 0.12) under every temporal condition ( p <0.001 in all instances). The three-way interaction was not significant, F (6, 255) = 0.94, p = 0.455, η p 2 = 0.02.

The present study is the first to clarify the effects of sport expertise and shot results on the action anticipation of basketball players. The performance of basketball players with varying skill levels (collegiate players and recreational players) and non-athletes was compared in an action anticipation task. Concerning the temporal conditions and shot results, the results demonstrated that the collegiate players and recreational players exhibited better accuracy than the non-athletes for the falling phase but not for the other temporal conditions. Additionally, all participants showed superior performance for made shots versus missed shots under every temporal condition. Furthermore, for the made shots, the collegiate players demonstrated higher prediction accuracy than the non-athletes. This study is the first to combine different temporal information with shot results to test the anticipation of basketball players with varying skill levels and non-athletes; thus, the results of this study may add important information to the present literature.

In the field of action anticipation, sport expertise and temporal information have attracted considerable interest. Studies focusing on the anticipation of basketball shooting found that when watching early (from 429 ms to 858 ms) and medium-term (from 426 ms to 852 ms) action phases during a shot, athletes provided more responses and predicted the shot result more accurately, but no difference between groups was found when they watched the late action phase of the shots [ 2 , 4 ]. However, the present study compared the accuracy of basketball players with varying levels of experience and non-athletes under different temporal conditions (0–668 ms, 0–1002 ms, 0–1336 ms and 0–1670 ms after the start of the shot) and demonstrated the advantage of collegiate players under the latest temporal condition (i.e., the phase when the ball approached the basket). This result contradicts the findings of previous studies and Hypothesis 1. This inconsistency may be caused by differences in experimental protocols. Our study required the subjects to make a two-alternative decision regarding whether a shot would be successful or missed, which is similar to actual situations in sports. Accordingly, as the information provided to a subject decreases, the accuracy should approach 50%. The studies conducted by Aglioti and Cesari [ 2 ] and Wu and Zeng [ 4 ] allowed the subjects to make an uncertain choice (i.e., “I do not know”), which may lead to different response strategies. In the early and medium-term action phases of the shots, the non-athletes were more inclined to choose uncertainty, but the athletes tended to make certain judgements and showed better performance. Furthermore, in the study conducted by Aglioti and Cesari [ 2 ], the non-athletes’ accuracy was approximately 80% when watching a shot for 1207 ms (similar to the high point phase in our study), while the present study found that the accuracies of the players and non-athletes were only 52% and 53%, respectively. The differences in the results may be explained by individual differences in the participants. Our results implied that the experienced players required a sufficient amount of information to be able to make accurate judgements.

In addition, other studies concerning anticipation in tennis or table tennis revealed that elite athletes were able to utilize early valid information to facilitate their prediction of the ball direction [ 5 , 6 ]. Zhao and Lu [ 5 ] found that when observing a video of table tennis serves with early kinematic cues and early flight cues, the regional-level group had higher prediction accuracy than the college-level and novice groups. To the best of our knowledge, a tennis server usually determines the ball’s direction before he or she serves. Thus, the server’s body posture presents some directional information that experienced players can use to make accurate judgements. In contrast to tennis serving, basketball shooting is a more uncertain task during which the shooter may think “I hope that the ball goes in, but I am not sure”; thus, early clues may not be present due to the uncertainty of the shot result.

According to previous studies, sport expertise seems to cause an anticipation bias towards made shots. Analysis of the shot results and groups revealed that basketball playing experience selectively influenced the collegiate players’ anticipation of a shot. For the made shots, the accuracy of the collegiate players was significantly higher than that of the non-athletes. Consistent with these results, Cañal-Bruland and Balch [ 7 ] and Maglott and Chiasson [ 8 ] demonstrated that players shooting a ball were better at judging their own shots as “in” than observers and recreational shooters. Although their experiment required the participants to shoot a ball themselves and then to make a judgement using both visual and proprioceptive information, our study required the participants to judge other people’s shots and showed that the collegiate players performed better than the other groups when presented with made shots, suggesting that experts can match the proprioception of their own shots to the visual information of others’ shots.

Additionally, regulatory focus theory suggests that performance improvement is affected by the "regulatory fit" [ 12 ]. Expert basketball players have higher motivation for achievement and must exert their best effort to win a match, conferring a self-regulatory focus, i.e., “focus on gains”, and a behavioural strategy, i.e., “search for a win”. Memmert and Unkelbach [ 11 ] found that the regulatory fit led to a broader scope of attention in a basketball shot task. When individuals with a “focus on gains” were required to predict whether positive results would occur (e.g., expert players were required to judge whether a shot would be a successful shot), the regulatory fit could help them improve their performance [ 13 ]. Regarding signal detection theory, the goal of “focus on gains” individuals is to ensure a “hit” and prevent a “miss” [ 12 ]. Consistent with this theory, the superior performance (e.g., more hits and fewer misses) of the collegiate players in the present study may be due to the effect of the regulatory fit. However, our results were not completely consistent with Hypothesis 2. The present study corroborated that the experts’ accuracy was higher than that of the other groups regardless of the temporal condition, indicating that the anticipation bias of experts existed in all phases of a shot.

By comparing the accuracy of the missed shots, the results showed an interesting trend such that the accuracy of the missed shot predictions gradually decreased as the skill level increased under all conditions. Similarly, Maglott and Chiasson [ 8 ] reported that for missed shots, collegiate shooters had poorer prediction accuracy regarding their own shots than recreational shooters, and their prediction accuracy was significantly worse than random chance. Adding a non-athlete group in the present study demonstrated the effect more specifically. The accuracy of the collegiate players and recreational players for missed shots was lower than that of the non-athletes. In addition, the differences between the accuracy in each group and random chance (50%) were compared according to a study conducted by Uchida and Mizuguchi [ 3 ]. The accuracy of the collegiate players and recreational players for missed shots was lower than random chance in the first three phases (collegiate players: t <-3.65, p <0.001 in all instances; recreational players: t <-2.26, p <0.05 in all instances), but no such difference was observed in the non-athlete group in any shot phase ( t >-1.13, p >0.12 in all instances). Consistent with this finding, studies have found that sometimes skilled athletes’ subconscious can inhibit objective visual information [ 14 ]. The subjective expectations of made shots in the present study appeared to represent this type of subconscious, which has also been called overconfidence or desirability bias [ 7 ]. Although some researchers may consider this bias a useful tool for experts to successfully shoot a free throw [ 15 ], it indeed impeded the experts’ prediction accuracy. At least, the poor performance of the experts reminded the collegiate players to not always think that a shot will be successful.

Some limitations existed in the present study. First, an anticipation error can be corrected by a rebound or reshot if the person who made the judgement realizes his or her mistake. Aglioti and Cesari [ 2 ] found that only experts have the ability to distinguish between error and correct judgements. However, the present study did not examine whether the participants could determine whether their judgements were correct or incorrect. Additionally, future studies should determine whether error realization can be affected by temporal information or shot results. Second, the present study required the subjects to respond after viewing 4, 6, 8 and 10 pictures. The experimental protocol was not totally consistent with an actual situation in the sport. In a basketball game, players can predict the ball’s fate at any time after the ball is released; thus, future designs of the anticipation task may use complete videos and allow subjects to make predictions at any time during the video. Finally, the recreational group in the present study included athletes from other sports, such as track and field, boxing, rowing and judo, and whether experience in other sports may transfer to action anticipation is unknown. Therefore, more studies are needed to compare players with different levels of basketball expertise only.

Conclusions

The present study considered the effects of sport expertise and shot results on the action anticipation of basketball players. When free throws were divided into four temporal conditions (i.e., the shooting phase, the rising phase, the high point and the falling phase), the collegiate players and recreational players demonstrated better accuracy than the non-athletes for the falling phase but not for the other temporal conditions. Concerning the accuracy of the shot results, the results showed that the collegiate players and recreational players had more accurate predictions than the non-athletes when judging made shots in the late time phase. Moreover, an analysis of the missed shots revealed worse performance by the collegiate players compared with the non-athletes in the middle time phase.

Supporting information

S1 file. raw data..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.s001

S2 File. Ethical approval.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227521.s002

• View Article
• PubMed/NCBI
• Google Scholar

Interdisciplinary Analyses of Professional Basketball

Investigating the Hardwood

• © 2024
• Till Neuhaus 0 ,
• Niklas Thomas 1

Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

You can also search for this editor in PubMed   Google Scholar

University of Münster, Münster, Germany

• Considers the cultural, geographical, and historical embeddedness of professional basketball
• Provides a sensitive analysis of how specific decisions, trends, or movements have come about within the sport
• Employs qualitative methods, providing new perspectives on the topic

Part of the book series: Global Culture and Sport Series (GCS)

1459 Accesses

4 Citations

8 Altmetric

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this book

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Other ways to access

Licence this eBook for your library

Institutional subscriptions

About this book

This edited collection conceptualizes professional basketball not just as a sport but as an historically, culturally, and economically embedded entity. The chapters analyse the fact that the sport of basketball contains alternative logics that can easily clash, and by treating professional basketball as the negotiation place of these multiple demands, ideas, and logics, the editors have identified three areas in which these clashes manifest: the realization of the game; the cultural impact of professional basketball and the global outreach of professional basketball.

The book is explanatory and qualitative, offering new perspectives and touching on topics including gender, diversity, racism, and minority experiences within professional basketball. As such it will be of interest to sport sociologists, as well as those researching the history of sport, sports marketing and cultural studies.

Similar content being viewed by others

Introduction

• Sports regulation
• Kobe Bryant
• Globalisation

Table of contents (15 chapters)

Front matter, court inspection: introduction to the edited collection.

• Till Neuhaus, Niklas Thomas

Changes of and Transformations Within Basketball

Playing moneyball: sociological perspectives on the emergence of statistical thinking in the nba, from baller to baller: a study of player-specific rule changes and morality in the nba.

• Samuel Despars

Double-Dribbles, Dunks, and Dice: The History and Cultural Significance of Basketball Board Games

• Adam J. Criblez

Slapping the Hardwood: Sexuality and Textuality in the NBA

• Nick Joseph

Professional Basketball in Different Media and Cultural Products

“it’s a whole new ballgame”: the american basketball league, the women’s national basketball association, and their intertwined histories.

• Dafna Kaufman

“What Is He, Your Coach?”: Uncut Gems as a Basketball Movie

• Łukasz Muniowski

Competitive by Nature: Unraveling the Affinity Between Basketball and Hip Hop

• Max Tretter, Till Neuhaus

Kobe Bryant Doesn’t Need a Son: Remembering an African American Icon

• Isaac Consenstein

“Chu-kaa”: Basketball, Gender Identity, and Racial Politics in U.S. Children’s and Young Adult Literature

• Liliana Santos

The NBA Between Domestic and International Dynamics

Shallow moment or sustainable movement a critical discourse analysis of the national basketball association’s (nba) support of the black lives matter movement on instagram.

• Niklas Thomas, Till Neuhaus

A Sociological View of the NBA and How Aggressive Media and Culture Strategies Drove the Rise of a Mega Sport

• Samuel Tickell

The Basketball Show in the North of France: A Hybrid Cultural Creation Between the Globalized Culture of the NBA and the Local Carnival Culture

• David Sudre

A Geopolitical Firestorm Between the NBA and China Over a Tweet

• Michelle Tran

The Influence of NBA Overseas Pre- and Post-Pandemic: The Case of Mexico

• Luis A. Barroso, David O. Huerta-Harris

Editors and Affiliations

Till Neuhaus

Niklas Thomas

About the editors

Niklas Thomas is a student of English and Sport Science at the University of Münster, Germany. He has published articles on the sport-society-nexus in international peer-reviewed journals.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Interdisciplinary Analyses of Professional Basketball

Book Subtitle : Investigating the Hardwood

Editors : Till Neuhaus, Niklas Thomas

Series Title : Global Culture and Sport Series

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41656-9

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Social Sciences , Social Sciences (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-41655-2 Published: 05 January 2024

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-41658-3 Due: 18 January 2025

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-41656-9 Published: 03 January 2024

Series ISSN : 2662-3404

Series E-ISSN : 2662-3412

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XIX, 349

Number of Illustrations : 13 b/w illustrations

Topics : Sociology of Sport and Leisure , Sport Science , Sociology of Culture , Sports Economics , Political Sociology

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

2019 Theses Doctoral

Essays in Basketball Analytics

Keshri, Suraj Kumar

With the increasing popularity and competition in professional basketball in the past decade, data driven decision has emerged as a big competitive edge. The advent of high frequency player tracking data from SportVU has enabled a rigorous analysis of player abilities and interactions that was not possible before. The tracking data records two-dimensional x-y coordinates of 10 players on the court as well as the x-y-z coordinates of the ball at a resolution of 25 frames per second, yielding over 1 billion space-time observations over the course of a full season. This dissertation offers a collection of spatio-temporal models and player evaluation metrics that provide insight into the player interactions and their performance, hence allowing the teams to make better decisions. Conventional approaches to simulate matches have ignored that in basketball the dynamics of ball movement is very sensitive to the lineups on the court and unique identities of players on both offense and defense sides. In chapter 2, we propose the simulation infrastructure that can bridge the gap between player identity and team level network. We model the progression of a basketball match using a probabilistic graphical model. We model every touch event in a game as a sequence of transitions between discrete states. We treat the progression of a match as a graph, where each node represents the network structure of players on the court, their actions, events, etc., and edges denote possible moves in the game flow. Our results show that either changes in the team lineup or changes in the opponent team lineup significantly affects the dynamics of a match progression. Evaluation on the match data for the 2013-16 NBA season suggests that the graphical model approach is appropriate for modeling a basketball match. NBA teams value players who can ``stretch'' the floor, i.e. create space on the court by drawing their defender(s) closer to themselves. Clearly, this ability to attract defenders varies across players, and furthermore, this effect may also vary by the court location of the offensive player, and whether or not the player is the ball handler. For instance, a ball-handler near the basket attracts a defender more when compared to a non ball-handler at the 3 point line. This has a significant effect on the defensive assignment. This is particularly important because defensive assignment has become the cornerstone of all tracking data based player evaluation models. In chapter 3, we propose a new model to learn player and court location specific offensive attraction. We show that offensive players indeed have varying ability to attract the defender in different parts of the court. Using this metric, teams can evaluate players to construct a roster or lineup which maximizes spacing. We also improve upon the existing defensive matchup inference algorithm for SportVU data. While the ultimate goal of the offense is to shoot the ball, the strategy lies in creating good shot opportunities. Offensive play event detection has been a topic of research interest. Current research in this area have used a supervised learning approach to detect and classify such events. We took an unsupervised learning approach to detect these events. This has two inherent benefits: first, there is no need for pretagged data to learn identifying these events which is a lobor intensive and error prone task; second, an unsupervised approach allows us to detect events that has not been tagged yet i.e. novel events. We use a HMM based approach to detect these events at any point in the time during a possession by specifying the functional form of the prior distribution on the player movement data. We test our framework on detecting ball screen, post up, and drive. However, it can be easily extended to events like isolation or a new event that has certain distinct defensive matchup or player movement feature compared to a non event. This is the topic for chapter 4. Accurate estimation of the offensive and the defensive abilities of players in the NBA plays a crucial role in player selection and ranking. A typical approach to estimate players' defensive and offensive abilities is to learn the defensive assignment for each shot and then use a random effects model to estimate the offensive and defensive abilities for each player. The scalar estimate from the random effects model can then be used to rank player. In this approach, a shot has a binary outcome, either it is made or it is a miss. This approach is not able to take advantage of the “quality” of the shot trajectory. In chapter 5, we propose a new method for ranking players that infers the quality of a shot trajectory using a deep recurrent neural network, and then uses this quality measure in a random effects model to rank players taking defensive matchup into account. We show that the quality information significantly improves the player ranking. We also show that including the quality of shots increases the separation between the learned random effect coefficients, and thus, allows for a better differentiation of player abilities. Further, we show that we are able to infer changes in the player's ability on a game-by-game basis when using a trajectory based model. A shot based model does not have enough information to detect changes in player's ability on a game-by-game basis. A good defensive player prevents its opponent from making a shot, attempting a good shot, making an easy pass, or scoring events, eventually leading to wasted shot clock time. The salient feature here is that a good defender prevents events. Consequently, event driven metrics, such as box scores, cannot measure defensive abilities. Conventional wisdom in basketball is that ``pesky'' defenders continuously maintain a close distance to the ball handler. A closely guarded offensive player is less likely to take or make a shot, less likely to pass, and more likely to lose the ball. In chapter 6, we introduce Defensive Efficiency Rating (DER), a new statistic that measures the defensive effectiveness of a player. DER is the effective distance a defender maintains with the ball handler during an interaction where we control for the identity and wingspan of the the defender, the shot efficiency of the ball handler, and the zone on the court. DER allows us to quantify the quality of defensive interaction without being limited by the occurrence of discrete and infrequent events like shots and rebounds. We show that the ranking from this statistic naturally picks out defenders known to perform well in particular zones.

• Operations research
• Sports--Statistical methods
• Basketball players--Ability testing
• Simulation methods
• Sports--Mathematical models
• Basketball players--Rating of

More About This Work

• DOI Copy DOI to clipboard

• DSpace@MIT Home
• MIT Libraries
• Graduate Theses

Modelling the NBA to make better predictions

Alternative title

Other contributors, terms of use, description, date issued, collections.

Show Statistical Information

The Development of Basketball Players: Current Perspectives and Future Directions

• September 2022
• Open Science Journal 7(3):10
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

• Universidade da Beira Interior

Abstract and Figures

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• John P. DiFiori

• ANN HUM BIOL

• Int J Environ Res Publ Health

• Daniel A Marinho
• REV PSICOL DEPORTE

• Paulina Coelho

• Clive Brewer
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Mental Fatigue and Basketball Performance: A Systematic Review

Shudian cao.

1 Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

Soh Kim Geok

Samsilah roslan, soh kim lam.

2 Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

Shaowen Qian

3 Department of Physical Education, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psycho-biological state that impairs sports-related performances. Recently, it has been proved that MF can affect basketball performance. However, a systematic overview detailing the influences of MF on basketball performance is still lacking. This study aims to investigate the effects of MF on the physical, technical, tactical, and cognitive performance of basketball. We used the databases of PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopes, and CKNI for articles published up to 31 May 2021. The articles included in this study were projected to test whether MF influences basketball athlete performance. Only experimental design studies were selected, and the control condition was without MF. Finally, seven articles fit the inclusion criteria. The results imply that MF impairs the technical aspects of basketball (free throws, three-point shots, and total turnover) and the players' cognitive [take-the-first (TTF) heuristics and decision-making] performance, which results in athletes not using their techniques skillfully and being unable to make practical decisions during critical points in the game. In addition to that, the influences of MF on physical and tactical performance have not been studied. Further studies should look into comprehensive research on the influences of MF on basketball performance, especially on a player's physical and tactical performance.

Systematic Review Registration: [ https://inplasy.com/ ] [INPLASY2021100017].

Introduction

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psychobiological state caused by prolonged, demanding cognitive activity, which has implicated many aspects of daily life. This condition causes an acute feeling of tiredness and a decreased cognitive ability (Boksem and Tops, 2008 ; Marcora et al., 2009 ; Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ). Along with the investigation of MF on cognitive performance, an increasing number of researchers focus on the potential impact MF has on one's physical performance. The most recent research aimed at understanding the phenomenon of MF found that it has a negative impact on athletic performance (Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ; Pageaux and Lepers, 2018 ; Habay et al., 2021 ), including endurance (cycling, running, yo-yo), motor skills (accuracy, speed, time taken to finish), and decision-making (errors, slower response time). MF harms the sports-specific psychomotor performances (SSPP) of different sports, including soccer, badminton, table tennis, basketball, and cricket (Habay et al., 2021 ). On the other hand, maximal force production (countermovement jumps, maximal voluntary contractions) was not affected by MF (Pageaux and Lepers, 2018 ).

According to the multiple resource model (Wickens, 1980 ), MF attracts peoples' attention as the secondary task which may simultaneously compete with the limited resource and potentially interfere with hazard recognition and take-over performance (Naujoks et al., 2017 ). In the higher demand condition, peoples' self-regulation mainly exhibited in the main task (Wandtner et al., 2016 ) and the adjustment in the interaction with the secondary task (Lin et al., 2019 ). On a control level, people regulate the current secondary task processing by disengagement with the secondary task if necessary, in which self-regulation was mainly manifested by peoples' attention allocation between main task and secondary tasks (Lin et al., 2019 ). As for sports area, sometimes, it is hard for athletes to perform to the best of their capabilities in fierce competitions, especially when success or failure has essential meaning. They have a higher cognitive burden to bear in those situations, which affects their performance (Nieuwenhuys and Oudejans, 2012 ). Studies suggest that the pressure of competition can induce anxiety and interfere with one's attention span, thus impairing one's athletic performance (Oudejans et al., 2011 ; Englert and Bertrams, 2012 ). Therefore, self-regulation was exerted to regulate their anxiety and better control their focus (Wilson et al., 2009 ; Englert and Bertrams, 2012 ; Baumeister et al., 2016 ; Englert, 2016 ), which can facilitate the execution of desired behaviors and task-relevant actions, thus leading to athletes being closer to their goal or highest standard of performance (Baumeister et al., 2016 ; Englert, 2016 ). However, exerting self-control may result in higher chances of failure in future efforts, called ego depletion, or MF (Baumeister et al., 2016 ).

Concerning basketball, people usually evaluate it by physical, technical, tactical and cognitive performance (Klusemann et al., 2013 ; Scanlan et al., 2014 ; Conte et al., 2018 ). Physical demands, such as stand-walk, jog, run, sprint, shuffle and jumps, are basic ability for playing basketball (Klusemann et al., 2013 ). Technical and tactical performance, such as the percentage of shot, rebounds, ball reversals and post entries are key factor between winning and losing teams (Conte et al., 2018 ). Cognitive components, such as perceptual and decision-making elements, influences basketball players' performance (Scanlan et al., 2014 ). Numerous studies have researched the influences of physical fatigue on players' performances and found that passing accuracy, ball speed and shooting technique significantly decrease when players are under the influences of physical fatigue compared to their non-fatigued states (Erculj and Supej, 2009 ; Li et al., 2021 ). However, these consequences are considered restricted to physical fatigue, and only a few articles have paid attention to the psychological aspect of basketball performance. During basketball games, players operate in high-intensity environments, which force them to conduct psychological operations to meet competition needs (Sighinolfi, 2020 ). Players who play at higher levels tend to have higher commitments, challenges, and confidence levels (Zarić et al., 2021 ). Therefore, due to basketball's cognitive and psychological demands, their cognitive engagement may cause MF.

An increasing number of articles have focused on the influences of MF in a variety of sports areas, including systematic reviews (Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ; Pageaux and Lepers, 2018 ; Kunrath et al., 2020 ; Habay et al., 2021 ). However, a systematic review investigating the influences of MF in the sport of basketball is lacking. Hence, this systematic review aims to identify the influences of MF on the physical, technical, cognitive, and tactical performance of basketball athletes.

This systematic review was done following the PRISMA (2009) guidelines (Kosa et al., 2018 ). This title has already been registered on International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols, and the registration number is INPLASY2021100017. It involved three steps: (1) a search on existing literature (including the selection of search terms, databases, and inclusion criteria); (2) a screening based on title; (3) a screening based on the article's abstract. The search was conducted on the 18 May, 2021, and the following databases were used: PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopes, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). The search terms were (“mental fatigue” OR “cognitive fatigue” OR “mental effort” OR “cognitive effort” OR “mental exertion” OR “ego depletion” AND “basketball”). In each database, a search was conducted by title. In addition to that, the related reference lists in the included articles were screened. Finally, there is not the language limitation.

PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, study designs) criteria were used as the inclusion criteria, is presented in Table 1 . Studies had to fulfill following inclusion criteria: (1) an evaluation of basketball-specific tests performed after the MF-inducing intervention was required, and, in the control group, the MF should not have been induced, or at least have triggered less MF than the intervention task; (2) the intervention was used to induce MF, and the sample population was comprised of basketball players; (3) measurements were implemented in a basketball-specific context (i.e., jump shots, dribbling, and passing); (4) the outcomes encompassed any form of basketball performance; and (5) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (nRCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials (nRnCTs) had to be included. The data-collection process, based on PRISMA, is presented in Figure 1 (Tan et al., 2020 ).

Inclusion criteria according to the PICOS conditions.

Systematic review search and screening procedure.

The results (titles and/or abstracts) of studies retrieved using the search strategy and the titles and/or abstracts of studies from other sources will be independently screened by two review authors to identify studies that may meet the above inclusion criteria. The reviewers will review these studies according to the standard of population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design. The two review authors will extract data independently, and the differences will be determined and resolved through discussion (discuss with the third author if necessary).

“QualSyst” was used to assess the methodology quality (Kmet and Lee, 2004 ). It contained 14 items (see Table 2 ). The score was set according the degree to which the certain criteria were met (yes = 2, partial = 1, no = 0). “NA” was marked when the items did not apply to the study design and excluded from the total calculation of score. A score of ≥75% indicated strong quality, a score of 55–75% indicated moderate quality, and a score of ≤ 55% indicated weak quality.

Quality assessment “Qualsyst”.

NA, not applicable; 2, indicates yes; 1, indicates partial; 0, indicates no; I, question describe; II, appropriate study design; III, appropriate subject selection; IV, characteristics describe; V, random allocation; VI, researcher blinded; VII, subjects blinded; VIII, outcomes measure well defined and robust to bias; IX, sample size appropriate; X, analytic methods well described; XI, estimate of variance reported; XII, controlled for confounding; XIII, results reported in detail; XIV, conclusion supported by results .

This study screened 999 articles, and 951 articles were remained after duplicates. After titles and abstracts were screened, 6 articles remained, and only 1 related article was found in screening the reference lists of the 6 articles ( Figure 1 ). Overall, 7 articles were finally selected for the present systematical review. The result of quality assessment showed that 5 articles were of strong quality, 1 was moderate, and 1 was weak ( Table 2 ). We did not exclude the article deemed to be of weak quality, because the number of articles in present systematic review was already limited.

General Study Characteristics

Table 3 shows information on the study characteristics, which based on follow aspects: (1) Sample size: In totally, the seven articles had 258 subjects. The sample sizes ranged from 18 (Bahrami et al., 2020 ) to 72 (Shaabani et al., 2020 ) participants, and the mean sample size was 36.9 participants (SD = 23.4). (2) Gender: Most samples only contained males, but one sample (Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ) had both genders. The percentage of female was 13.2% and male was 86.8%. (3) Population classification: Five articles involved trained athletes (Englert et al., 2015 ; López et al., 2017 ; Moreira et al., 2018 ; Bahrami et al., 2020 ; Shaabani et al., 2020 ), but other two included undergraduate students (Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ) and amateurs (Filipas et al., 2021 ) respectively.

Overview of the mental fatigue—inducing interventions.

A, age; H, height; M, male; FM, female; PHV, peak height velocity; Y, year; C, control; I, intervention; RCT, randomized controlled trial; MF, mental fatigue .

Mental Fatigue-Inducing Interventions and Instruments

Two studies used a Stroop task to induce MF. The Stroop task was incongruent (Moreira et al., 2018 ; Shaabani et al., 2020 ) or combined with a Stroop software exercise involving math tests (Bahrami et al., 2020 ). Other studies used other forms of demanding cognitive tasks, such as watching a basketball tactical video (Filipas et al., 2021 ), N-Back tasks (López et al., 2017 ) and transcribing a neutral text with conditions (Englert et al., 2015 ). Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) used mental serial subtraction to induce mental stress. Mental stress can induce anxiety and decrease attention. In those situations, self-control was exerted to regulate the pressure experienced and better focus their attention, which increases the possibility of self-control failure in the future, thus leading to ego depletion or MF (Shaabani et al., 2020 ). The duration of the intervention was different across studies, though most studies ranged from 6 to 120 mins (Englert et al., 2015 ; Moreira et al., 2018 ; Bahrami et al., 2020 ; Shaabani et al., 2020 ; Filipas et al., 2021 ). One article, however, only intervened for 30 s (Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ), and another did not make mention of the duration (López et al., 2017 ).

The control conditions used by the included studies were varied. Englert et al. ( 2015 ) asked participants to transcribe the neutral text without any instructions. Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) used an easy cognitive task in which subjects sat in front of the computer screen for 10 mins and remained relaxed in the room for 20 mins. López et al. ( 2017 ) chose the oddball version of the control task. In this task, players had to press a button when a specific number was displayed onscreen. Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) gave a two-digit number and asked participants to count backwards from it for 30 s in the control group. Shaabani et al. ( 2020 ) used a congruent-modified Stroop color-word task as the control condition. An overview of the MF-inducing interventions can be found in Table 3 .

Several types of instruments were applied to test the effectiveness of reducing MF before and after cognitive tasks. First of all, five studies used one or more subjective manipulation checks: two studies used a visual analog scale (VAS) to assess MF and motivation (Bahrami et al., 2020 ; Filipas et al., 2021 ). Englert et al. ( 2015 ) applied a 4-item manipulation check to test whether the intervention induces the ego depletion. López et al. ( 2017 ) used the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-task load index (NASA-TLX) questionnaire to measure perceived effort and measure frustration workload score (0–100). Shaabani et al. ( 2020 ) used an ego-depletion manipulation check (EDMC) (four-item, 7-point Likert-type scale) to assess the depletion conditions between groups. All manipulation checks indicated an increase in MF in the experimental group. On the other hand, Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) used a behavioral manipulation check, in which reaction time and accuracy of the Stroop task were assessed. Finally, Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) used a physiological manipulation check, in which a heart rate monitor (Polar H7—chest strap) was used to measure heart rate variability (HRV).

Effects of MF on Basketball Performance

Basketball performance is divided into physical, technical, cognitive, and tactical performance for this section (Klusemann et al., 2013 ; Scanlan et al., 2014 ; Conte et al., 2018 ). Table 4 gives an overview of the mental fatigue on basketball performance.

Overview of the mental fatigue on basketball performance.

3TS, three-point shot; FT, free throw; TTF, take the first heuristic; C, control; I, intervention; M, male; FM, female; CT, cognitive task; SSGs, small-sided-games .

Physical Performance

The articles selected for the present study did not involve any MF on physical performance in basketball.

Technical Performance

Regarding technical performance, the six articles used the players' efficiency, total turnover in small-sided-games (SSGs), three-point shots, and free throws to evaluate a player's technical performance. Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) mentions an unclear difference in player efficiency between the two groups, but the total turnover increased in the intervention group, compared to the control group. Bahrami et al. ( 2020 ) says there was a significant decrease in the scores of the three-point shots from pre-test to post-test in the experimental group, but there was no noticeable difference in the control group. It also states that there was a significant difference in the scores of the three-point shots between the two groups involved in the post-test. As for the influences of MF on free throws, Englert et al. ( 2015 ), López et al. ( 2017 ), Shaabani et al. ( 2020 ), and Filipas et al. ( 2021 ) found that the percentage of free throws was lower in the experimental group than in the control group.

Cognitive Performance

Decision-making and take-the-first (TTF) heuristics were used to evaluate cognitive performance. Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) found no significant difference in TTF frequency, the number of options generated, the first optional quality, or the final decision quality between two groups, but there was a noticeable difference between the first option generation and the final decision speed.

Tactical Performance

The articles selected in the present study did not involve the effects of MF on tactical performance in basketball.

In this study, we aim to sum the current extent of knowledge on the influences of MF on basketball players' performances. In order to achieve the aim, MF must first be successfully induced. Therefore, we reviewed the different methods that were used to attempt to cause MF. Overall, this review shows that MF can harm basketball players' performances in terms of efficiency, total turnover, free throws, take-the-first heuristics, decision-making, and three-point shots.

Mental Fatigue-Inducing Interventions

In this study, the seven articles analyzed used six different tasks to induce MF. Whether the MF was induced successfully or not is very important.

Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) and Shaabani et al. ( 2020 ) used incongruent-modified Stroop color-word tasks of 30 mins to induce mental stress. Stroop tasks are a common way of inducing MF. For instance, Filipas et al. ( 2019 ) and Weerakkody et al. ( 2020 ) also used them in their studies of football and cycling (Filipas et al., 2019 ; Weerakkody et al., 2020 ). Rauch and Schmitt ( 2009 ) showed that a 15 mins Stroop task with 50% congruent and incongruent trials could induce MF. Englert et al. ( 2015 ) required participants to transcribe a neutral German text from the computer screen on paper for 6 mins as fast as they could. The participants in the experimental group had to omit all letters “e” and “n,” which are the most common letters in German. They had to override their writing habits, so that much self-control was needed. Another study also proved that the method was successful in inducing MF (Englert et al., 2015 ). Filipas et al. ( 2021 ) asked participants to watch a basketball tactical video to induce MF, and the results showed a difference between the experimental and control group. Video watching is relevant because it is expected of basketball players to perform video analysis conferences before competitions (Filipas et al., 2021 ). Therefore, making the experimental session similar to the actual basketball match should be considered in future studies. Bahrami et al. ( 2020 ) used the Stroop software and math tests to induce MF, but the duration was for 120 mins. It has been proposed that the different durations and difficulties of the mentally exerting tasks might have different influences on people (Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ). Hagger et al. ( 2016 ) states that sufficient duration and intensity are essential in inducing fatigue. López et al. ( 2017 ) used an N-Back test to induce MF, but the duration is not stated in the study. N-Back tests are tasks of continuous processing, and are also a standard method of inducing MF. Tanaka et al. ( 2009 ) proved that a 30 mins 2-Back test can cause MF (Tanaka et al., 2009 ). Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) used mental serial subtraction to cause MF. In this task, participants needed to count backwards by seven from a 4-digit number, and they needed to complete as many correct answers a possible. If they gave a wrong answer, they had to start over from the first number. Previous studies proved that similar mental arithmetic could induce MF (Diller et al., 2011 ).

In summary, Stroop tasks, N-back tests, transcribing a neutral text with conditions and mental serial subtraction are not basketball-specific tasks. However, these tests require critical cognitive skills to achieve a high level of performance. Basketball belongs to the category of open skills, which requires players to react in unpredictable and changing, externally paced environments (Coyne et al., 2018 ). Basketball as a sport has some unique qualities. For instance, unlike soccer, the restrictions of the court and rules result in a high number of accelerations and decelerations, and more high-intensity displacements for the players (Halouani et al., 2014 ; Hoffmann et al., 2014 ). In addition to that, players also have to perform more offense-defense conversions in competitions, which means they need to frequently combine a series of skills (e.g., screen, fast break) and tactics (e.g., screen, fast break) in competitions (Pino-Ortega et al., 2021 ). Basketball may require better visual attention, action execution, and decision-making skills (Overney et al., 2008 ; Yarrow et al., 2009 ; Nakata et al., 2010 ), based on which MF can manifest subjectively, behaviorally, and physiologically. Nevertheless, little information about behaviors (e.g., reaction time and accuracy) were made mention to in cognitive tasks (Moreira et al., 2018 ). Hence, cognitive tasks should be considered in greater detail in future studies.

Mental Fatigue and Basketball Performance

In order to discuss the subsequent basketball performance at a mentally fatigued state, a distinction was made between physical, technical, cognitive, and tactical performance.

According to the cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988 ), cognitive load refers to the used amount of working memory resources and heavy cognitive load has negative effects on task completion. Previous study reported that MF affected the information resources allocation of working memory, especially in the frontal and parietal regions which were closely related to working memory (Yang et al., 2021 ). Therefore, MF can increase the cognitive load leading to the reduction of performance.

In basketball competitions, physical performance includes stand-walks, jogging, running, sprinting, and low-, medium-, and high-intensity shuffles and jumps (Klusemann et al., 2013 ). The effects of MF on one's physical performance in basketball were not investigated. But Previous studies prove that MF impairs one's endurance, manifesting in increased completion time, decreased time before exhaustion, and self-selected power output/velocity (Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ). However, maximal strength, power, and anaerobic work are not affected by MF (Van Cutsem et al., 2017 ). Basketball combines aerobics and anaerobic exercises (Mancha-Triguero et al., 2020 ). Research shows that the average movement made by the world's best basketball centers is about 5,000 m per game, and the average movement of the world's best power forwards is about 6,000 m per game. An excellent attacking guard needs to move about 6,400 m to play a whole game. The moving distance of the China Basketball Association's (CBA's) leading players for a whole game range between 3,700 and 5,500 m, and the average moving distance per unit time per minute is 117–135 m per minute. There are significant differences among players in different positions, and the activity range of inside players is much smaller than those of outside players (Liu et al., 2012 ). Hence, whether the different positions the players play result in different degrees of MF should be investigated in the future.

Although the effects of MF on one's physical performance in basketball were not investigated in the chosen studies, other studies have proven its effects on the physical performance of other sports. For instance, Smith et al. ( 2015b ) proved that the total distance covered on a treadmill, and shorter distances covered at lower speeds (Smith et al., 2015b ), were decreased in mentally fatigued persons. Smith et al. ( 2015a ) also verified that a yo-yo intermittent recovery test was performed at a decreased rate of 16.3% by mentally fatigued people (Smith et al., 2015a ).

In conclusion, investigating whether MF impairs physical performance in basketball is necessary.

In sports, technology refers to various processes, operation methods, and skills developed according to practical production experience and natural science principles. Basketball technology is a particular action done to achieve the goals of basketball, such as rebounds, assists, and scoring shots (Lan, 2001 ; Conte et al., 2018 ).

Six studies assessed the influences of MF on free throws, three-point shots, and total turnovers (Englert et al., 2015 ; Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ; López et al., 2017 ; Moreira et al., 2018 ; Bahrami et al., 2020 ; Filipas et al., 2021 ). Those studies show the adverse influences of MF on technical basketball performance. The results show that the free throws and three-point shots in the experimental group were significantly lower than the control group, and Bahrami et al. ( 2020 ) added on to these results to state that there was no noticeable difference in the control group from pre-test to post-test. Comparatively, one article used small-sided-games (SSGs) to observe participants' technical performance (Moreira et al., 2018 ). SSGs are particularly relevant among the training methodologies used in basketball. SSGs can develop the physical, physiological, and technical-tactical aspects required in competitions (Klusemann et al., 2012 ; Delextrat and Martinez, 2013 ; Clemente, 2016 ). Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) recorded videos of its participants and used a formula to calculate the total turnovers of the two groups, thus proving that the total turnovers of participants in the experimental group were lower compared with control group.

From reviewing these articles, it was evident that none of the articles researched the effects of MF on technical performance in an official competition. To be specific, five articles researched the effects of MF on free throws and three-pointers during training (Englert et al., 2015 ; Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ; López et al., 2017 ; Bahrami et al., 2020 ; Filipas et al., 2021 ), and one article researched it in SSGs (4 vs 4 in a court size of 28 × 15, in four sets of 2 mins and 30 s per set) (Moreira et al., 2018 ). Players have different mentalities and face different environments in training and in competition. Hence, the effects of MF on technical performance in official basketball competitions should be researched.

Cognitive functions include a lot of basic mental operations, such as attention, memory, and executive functions involving working memory, decision-making, and multitasking (Lorenzo Calvo et al., 2021 ). Among these functions, attention is the one mainly defined as allocating cognitive resources to internal or external stimuli, which is key for sports performance (Furley and Wood, 2016 ).

Only one study assessed the effects of MF on TTF heuristics and decision-making outcomes (Shaabani et al., 2020 ). TTF heuristics are vital in sports (Johnson and Raab, 2003 ; Raab and Johnson, 2007 ). TTF refers to decisions made based on the first idea that springs to mind. As a result of the sequential order of option-generation, earlier options are better than options generated later in the process (Hepler and Kovacs, 2017 ). Hepler and Kovacs ( 2017 ) shows that MF does not affect the essential tenets of TTF. To be precise, in the study, participants were likely to choose their first choice in both experimental and control groups, and the number of options generated was identical. Therefore, MF did not affect the first option nor the subsequent options generated. As for decision outcomes, decision quality was not affected by MF, but the option-generation speed and final decision speed were significantly slower in the experimental group than in the control group. One study suggests that mental stress could inhibit reaction time (Van Gemmert and Galen, 1997 ).

Slimani et al. ( 2018 ) proved that MF had a negative effect on selection attention in concentration performances and increases the number of errors made (Slimani et al., 2018 ). When MF increased, brain activity gradually changed from negative to positive, which means that the inhibition of irrelevant information decreased the brain information system (Faber et al., 2012 ). Attention focus is a vital component of sports because there are many stimuli to which an athlete must attend. Attention can significantly impact performance when an athlete focuses (Milley and Ouellette, 2021 ). Therefore, researchers should research more into how MF influences cognitive performance in basketball.

Tactics refer to the “principles and methods of combat.” Basketball tactics are the principles and methods guiding individual skill and coordination among athletes in a basketball game. Usually, people divide tactics into offensive tactics (e.g., on-ball screen, off-ball screen) and defensive tactics (e.g., take the position, slide through) (Lan, 2001 ).

No articles have researched it in the present systematical review. However, a study proved that MF could impair tactical behaviors in soccer (Kunrath et al., 2020 ). Tactical performance has a crucial effect on basketball competitions. Winning teams have are more likely to have a higher number of ball reversals and post entries than losing teams (Conte et al., 2018 ), so investigating the influences of MF on tactical performance is vital.

To sum up the results, although the influences of MF on physical and tactical performance have not been researched, this systematic review shows that MF impairs technical and cognitive performance in basketball, which means that the percentage of shots will be decreased and the players' decision in competition will be affected when mentally fatigued. All these factors will likely lead to them losing the game.

Physical, technical, cognitive, and tactical performance are essential factors in basketball. Physical performance, such as running, sprinting, and shuffling, are the foundations on which a player operates their skills and tactics (McInnes et al., 1995 ), but the influences of MF on it in basketball have not been researched. On the other hand, players need to use unique techniques to execute strategies in basketball competition (Conte et al., 2015 ). In this regard, Basketball techniques, such as defensive rebounds and assists, are critical factors to win the game (Gomez et al., 2008 ). In this systematic review, although most of the reviewed articles researched the effects of MF on techniques, they did not do so during official competitions. Finally, cognitive performance, such as attention, anxiety, and motivation, can affect technical and tactical performance, which are also crucial in basketball competitions (Faber et al., 2012 ; Slimani et al., 2018 ; Milley and Ouellette, 2021 ), but only one of the six articles researched the influences of MF on cognitive performance.

In addition to studying the effects of MF on basketball performance, Moreira et al. ( 2018 ) also examined the effects of MF on salivary testosterone (T), cortisol (C), and alpha-amylase (sAA) responses. The increase of T and sAA concentrations were attenuated in the experimental group compared to the control group, but there was no change in C concentration between the two groups. The study suggests that the mentally fatigued state limits the increase of T and sAA. The T response might be relevant to the increase in errors during the small-sided-games (SSGs) (Boksem and Tops, 2008 ) and sAA is a biomarker for stress (Kivlighan and Granger, 2006 ; Silverman et al., 2010 ). C response is relevant to the effects of environmental and social-evaluative elements. In the cognitive task, or SSGs, these conditions were not present, which might be the reason that C concentration did not change between the two groups. On the other hand, Filipas et al. ( 2021 ) proved the negative effect a combination of MF and sleep deprivation has on technical performance for the first time (Filipas et al., 2021 ).

Finally, just one of the six articles mentioned a recovery strategy for MF (Shaabani et al., 2020 ). The study investigated mindfulness intervention effects (done for 15 mins) on mentally fatigued basketball players' free-throw performances. The participants in the control group listened to an audio-book segment on natural history, which was 15 mins long, and the results indicated that a brief mindfulness intervention could decrease the negative influence s of MF on basketball free-throws. Kabat-Zinn described mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Sierpina, 2005 ). Mindfulness has been used in many sports to reduce mental stress. Reis Coimbra et al. ( 2021 ) proved that mindfulness interventions effectively attenuated MF in volleyball athletes.

Besides mindfulness training, there are other methods used for mental recovery in sports. For instance, Lorenzo Calvo et al. ( 2021 ) states that the intake of caffeine could improve attention (Lorenzo Calvo et al., 2021 ). Listening to self-selected music would be a suitable method of reducing MF in endurance performances (Lam and Phillips, 2019 ).

In conclusion, Shaabani et al. ( 2020 ) investigated mindfulness on free-throw tasks, but future studies should look at its effects on one's technical, physical, cognitive, and tactical performance (Shaabani et al., 2020 ). On the other hand, the recovery strategies used in basketball are limited, so further studies should also focus on finding more methods for basketball players to recover from MF.

Limitations

Firstly, this review only included published articles. Therefore, the results might be affected by publication bias. Furthermore, two of the seven articles selected for the present study combined MF with sleep restriction and neuroendocrine respectively, which might have interfered with the results. Finally, the lack of articles on physical and tactical performance limits the overall understanding of knowledge on the effects of MF on basketball performance.

By reviewing the results of seven published studies, the present study presents experimental evidence that most of the articles that investigated MF have concluded that it impairs technical performance (free throws, three-point shots) and cognitive performance (TTF heuristics and decision-making) in basketball. As a result of this, athletes may not perform to their utmost capability, which could lead to them losing the game. However, none of the articles investigated the effects of MF on physical and tactical performance in basketball. Hence, further studies should pay more attention to that. As the studies selected examined the influences of MF on basketball tests (e.g., free-throw tests and three-point shot tests), studies should be done on whether the influences of MF would be different in an actual competition. Finally, one article researched and proved a recovery strategy for impaired basketball performance, focusing only on free-throw performance. For the sake of helping athletes recover from MF, more methods should be investigated in the future.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

The literature search and selection of studies were performed by SC and SG. Following an initial screen of titles and abstracts by SC, full scrutiny of potentially eligible studies was independently screened by SC and SG using the specific inclusion criteria. SR arbitrated any disagreements in study inclusion. Study quality assessment was performed by SC. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr. Zubaidah Ibrahim for their assistance with the searching strategy.

• Bahrami A., Moradi J., Etaati Z. (2020). The effect of mental fatigue on three-point shot performance in skilled basketball players . Int. J. Motor Control Learn. 2 , 4–10. 10.29252/ijmcl.2.4.4 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baumeister R. F., Vohs K. D., Tice D. M. (2016). The strength model of self-control . Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16 , 351–355. 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boksem M. A., Tops M. (2008). Mental fatigue: costs and benefits . Brain Res. Rev. 59 , 125–139. 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clemente F. (2016). Small-sided and conditioned games in basketball training: a review . Strength Cond. J. 38 , 49–58. 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000225 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Conte D., Favero T., Lupo C., Francioni F. M., Capranica L., Tessitore A. (2015). Time-motion analysis of italian elite women's basketball games: individual and team analyses . J. Strength Condition. Res. 29 , 144–150. 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000633 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Conte D., Tessitore A., Gjullin A., Mackinnon D., Lupo C., Favero T. (2018). Investigating the game-related statistics and tactical profile in NCAA division I men's basketball games . Biol. Sport 35 :137. 10.5114/biolsport.2018.71602 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Coyne J. O. C., Gregory Haff G., Coutts A. J., Newton R. U., Nimphius S. (2018). The current state of subjective training load monitoring-a practical perspective and call to action . Sports Med. Open 4 :58. 10.1186/s40798-018-0172-x [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delextrat A., Martinez A. (2013). Small-sided game training improves aerobic capacity and technical skills in basketball players . Int. J. Sports Med. 35 , 385–391. 10.1055/s-0033-1349107 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Diller J. W., Patros C. H., Prentice P. R. (2011). Temporal discounting and heart rate reactivity to stress . Behav. Processes 87 , 306–309. 10.1016/j.beproc.2011.05.001 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Englert C. (2016). The strength model of self-control in sport and exercise psychology . Front. Psychol. 7 :314. 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00314 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Englert C., Bertrams A. (2012). Anxiety, ego depletion, and sports performance . J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 34 , 580–599. 10.1123/jsep.34.5.580 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Englert C., Bertrams A., Furley P., Oudejans R. R. D. (2015). Is ego depletion associated with increased distractibility? Results from a basketball free throw task . Psychol. Sport Exerc. 18 , 26–31. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.12.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Erculj F., Supej M. (2009). Impact of fatigue on the position of the release arm and shoulder girdle over a longer shooting distance for an elite basketball player . J. Strength Condition. Res. 23 , 1029–1036. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181a07a27 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Faber L. G., Maurits N. M., Lorist M. M. (2012). Mental fatigue affects visual selective attention . PLoS ONE 7 :e48073. 10.1371/journal.pone.0048073 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Filipas L., Ferioli D., Banfi G., La Torre A., Vitale J. A. (2021). Single and combined effect of acute sleep restriction and mental fatigue on basketball free-throw performance . Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 16 , 415–420. 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0142 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Filipas L., Gallo G., Pollastri L., La Torre A. (2019). Mental fatigue impairs time trial performance in sub-elite under 23 cyclists . PLoS ONE 14 :e0218405. 10.1371/journal.pone.0218405 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Furley P., Wood G. (2016). Working memory, attentional control, and expertise in sports: a review of current literature and directions for future research . J. Appl. Res. Memory Cogn. 5 , 415–425. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gomez M. A., Lorenzo A., Barakat R., Ortega E., Palao J. M. (2008). Differences in game-related statistics of basketball performance by game location for men's winning and losing teams . Percept. Mot. Skills 106 , 43–50. 10.2466/pms.106.1.43-50 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Habay J., Van Cutsem J., Verschueren J., De Bock S., Proost M., De Wachter J., et al.. (2021). Mental fatigue and sport-specific psychomotor performance: a systematic review . Sports Med. 51 , 1527–1548. 10.1007/s40279-021-01429-6 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hagger M. S., Chatzisarantis N. L. D., Alberts H., Anggono C. O., Batailler C., Birt A. R., et al.. (2016). A Multilab Preregistered Replication of the Ego-Depletion Effect . Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 11 , 546–573. 10.1177/1745691616652873 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Halouani J., Chtourou H., Gabbett T., Chaouachi A., Chamari K. (2014). Small-sided games in team sports training: a brief review . J. Strength Cond. Res. 28 , 3594–3618. 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000564 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hepler T. J., Kovacs A. J. (2017). Influence of acute stress on decision outcomes and heuristics . J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 57 , 305–312. 10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06554-3 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hoffmann J. J., Jr., Reed J. P., Leiting K., Chiang C. Y., Stone M. H. (2014). Repeated sprints, high-intensity interval training, small-sided games: theory and application to field sports . Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 9 , 352–357. 10.1123/ijspp.2013-0189 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson J. G., Raab M. (2003). Take the first: option-generation and resulting choices . Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 91 , 215–229. 10.1016/s0749-5978(03)00027-x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kivlighan K. T., Granger D. A. (2006). Salivary alpha-amylase response to competition: relation to gender, previous experience, and attitudes . Psychoneuroendocrinology 31 , 703–714. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.01.007 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Klusemann M. J., Pyne D. B., Foster C., Drinkwater E. J. (2012). Optimising technical skills and physical loading in small-sided basketball games . J. Sports Sci. 30 , 1463–1471. 10.1080/02640414.2012.712714 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Klusemann M. J., Pyne D. B., Hopkins W. G., Drinkwater E. J. (2013). Activity profiles and demands of seasonal and tournament basketball competition . Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 8 , 623–629. 10.1123/ijspp.8.6.623 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kmet L., Lee R. (2004). Standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers from a variety of fields: AHFMRHTA Initiative 20040213 . HTA Initiative 2 :R37M04F16. 10.7939/R37M04F16 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kosa D., Monize J., D'Souza M., Joshi A., Philip K., Reza S., et al.. (2018). PRISMA 2009 Checklist. Amsterdam: Elseiver. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kunrath C. A., Cardoso F. D. S. L., Calvo T. G., da Costa I. T. (2020). Mental fatigue in soccer: a systematic review . Rev. Bras. Med. Esporte 26 , 172–178. 10.1590/1517-869220202602208206 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lam H. K. N., Phillips S. (2019). The effects of music on mental fatigue and endurance performance, in The Edinburgh Sport and Exercise Medicine Conference . [ Google Scholar ]
• Lan X. (2001). The discussion on the tactical system of basketball . China Sport Sci. Technol. 12 , 16–18. 10.16470/j.csst.2001.12.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li F., Knjaz D., Rupcic T. (2021). Influence of fatigue on some kinematic parameters of basketball passing . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18 :700. 10.3390/ijerph18020700 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lin R., Liu N., Ma L., Zhang T., Zhang W. (2019). Exploring the self-regulation of secondary task engagement in the context of partially automated driving: a pilot study . Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 64 , 147–160. 10.1016/j.trf.2019.05.005 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu J., Cheng L., Jianhua X. (2012). Inspirations from the research results of basketball game load characteristics to stamina training . J. Phys. Educ. 19 , 108–122. 10.16237/j.cnki.cn44-1404/g8.2012.05.014 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• López F., Ureña N., Vélez D. (2017). La fatiga mental deteriora el rendimiento en el tiro libre en baloncesto. 26 , 33–36. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lorenzo Calvo J., Fei X., Dominguez R., Pareja-Galeano H. (2021). Caffeine and cognitive functions in sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Nutrients 13 :868. 10.3390/nu13030868 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mancha-Triguero D., Garcia-Rubio J., Antunez A., Ibanez S. J. (2020). Physical and physiological profiles of aerobic and anaerobic capacities in young basketball players . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17 :1409. 10.3390/ijerph17041409 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marcora S. M., Staiano W., Manning V. (2009). Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans . J Appl. Physiol. 106 , 857–864. 10.1152/japplphysiol.91324.2008 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McInnes S. E., Carlson J. S., Jones C. J., McKenna M. J. (1995). The physiological load imposed on basketball players during competition . J. Sports Sci. 13 , 387–397. 10.1080/02640419508732254 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Milley K. R., Ouellette G. P. (2021). Putting attention on the spot in coaching: shifting to an external focus of attention with imagery techniques to improve basketball free-throw shooting performance . Front. Psychol. 12 :645676. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645676 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moreira A., Aoki M. S., Franchini E., da Silva Machado D. G., Paludo A. C., Okano A. H. (2018). Mental fatigue impairs technical performance and alters neuroendocrine and autonomic responses in elite young basketball players . Physiol. Behav. 196 , 112–118. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.08.015 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nakata H., Yoshie M., Miura A., Kudo K. (2010). Characteristics of the athletes' brain: evidence from neurophysiology and neuroimaging . Brain Res. Rev. 62 , 197–211. 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.11.006 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Naujoks F., Befelein D., Wiedemann K., Neukum A. (2017). A review of non-driving-related tasks used in studies on automated driving . Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 597 , 525–537. 10.1007/978-3-319-60441-1_52 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nieuwenhuys A., Oudejans R. R. (2012). Anxiety and perceptual-motor performance: toward an integrated model of concepts, mechanisms, and processes . Psychol. Res. 76 , 747–759. 10.1007/s00426-011-0384-x [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oudejans R. R., Kuijpers W., Kooijman C. C., Bakker F. C. (2011). Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: skill-focus or performance worries? Anxiety Stress Coping 24 , 59–73. 10.1080/10615806.2010.481331 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Overney L. S., Blanke O., Herzog M. H. (2008). Enhanced temporal but not attentional processing in expert tennis players . PLoS ONE 3 :e2380. 10.1371/journal.pone.0002380 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pageaux B., Lepers R. (2018). The effects of mental fatigue on sport-related performance . Prog. Brain Res. 240 , 291–315. 10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.004 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pino-Ortega J., Rojas-Valverde D., Gomez-Carmona C. D., Rico-Gonzalez M. (2021). Training design, performance analysis, and talent identification-a systematic review about the most relevant variables through the principal component analysis in soccer, basketball, and rugby . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18 :2642. 10.3390/ijerph18052642 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raab M., Johnson J. G. (2007). Expertise-based differences in search and option-generation strategies . J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 13 , 158–170. 10.1037/1076-898x.13.3.158 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rauch W., Schmitt K. (2009). Fatigue of Cognitive Control in the Stroop-Task . Proc. Annu. Conf. Meet. Sci. Soc. 31 . [ Google Scholar ]
• Reis Coimbra D., Bevilacqua G., Pereira F., Andrade A. (2021). Effect of Mindfulness Training on Fatigue and Recovery in Elite Volleyball Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Follow-Up Study . J. Sports Sci. Med. 20 , 1–8. 10.52082/jssm.2021.1 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scanlan A., Humphries B., Tucker P. S., Dalbo V. (2014). The influence of physical and cognitive factors on reactive agility performance in men basketball players . J. Sports Sci. 32 , 367–374. 10.1080/02640414.2013.825730 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaabani F., Naderi A., Borella E., Calmeiro L. (2020). Does a brief mindfulness intervention counteract the detrimental effects of ego depletion in basketball free throw under pressure? Sport Exerc. Perform. Psychol. 9 , 197–215. 10.1037/spy0000201 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sierpina V. S. (2005). Coming to our senses: healing ourselves and the world through mindfulness . Explore. 1 :320. 10.1016/j.explore.2005.04.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sighinolfi L. (2020). Sport psychology in basketball: performance under pressure . Basketball Sports Med. Sci. 2020 , 983–994. 10.1007/978-3-662-61070-1_78 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silverman M. N., Heim C. M., Nater U. M., Marques A. H., Sternberg E. M. (2010). Neuroendocrine and immune contributors to fatigue . PMR 2 , 338–346. 10.1016/j.pmrj.2010.04.008 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Slimani M., Znazen H., Bragazzi N. L., Zguira M. S., Tod D. (2018). The effect of mental fatigue on cognitive and aerobic performance in adolescent active endurance athletes: insights from a randomized counterbalanced, cross-over trial . J. Clin. Med. 7 :510. 10.3390/jcm7120510 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith M., Coutts A., Merlini M., Deprez D., Lenoir M., Marcora S. (2015a). Mental fatigue impairs soccer-specific physical and technical performance . Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 48 , 267–276. 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000762 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith M., Marcora S., Coutts A. (2015b). Mental fatigue impairs intermittent running performance . Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 47 , 1682–1690. 10.1249/mss.0000000000000592 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sweller J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning . Cogn. Sci. 12 , 257–285. 10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tan R., Lam W. C., Yao L., Wang X., Cheng C., Liu F., et al.. (2020). PRISMA (Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses) extension for Chinese herbal medicines 2020 (PRISMA-CHM 2020) . Am. J. Chin. Med. 48 , 1–35. 10.1142/S0192415X20500639 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tanaka M., Mizuno K., Tajima S., Sasabe T., Watanabe Y. (2009). Central nervous system fatigue alters autonomic nerve activity . Life Sci. 84 , 235–239. 10.1016/j.lfs.2008.12.004 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Cutsem J., Marcora S., De Pauw K., Bailey S., Meeusen R., Roelands B. (2017). The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: a systematic review . Sports Med. 47 , 1569–1588. 10.1007/s40279-016-0672-0 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Gemmert A., Galen G. (1997). Stress, neuromotor noise, and human performance: a theoretical perspective . J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 23 , 1299–1313. 10.1037//0096-1523.23.5.1299 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wandtner B., Schumacher M., Schmidt E. (2016). The role of self-regulation in the context of driver distraction: a simulator study . Traffic Inj. Prev. 17 , 1–8. 10.1080/15389588.2015.1102231 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weerakkody N. S., Taylor C. J., Bulmer C. L., Hamilton D. B., Gloury J., O'Brien N. J., et al.. (2020). The effect of mental fatigue on the performance of Australian football specific skills amongst amateur athletes . J. Sci. Med. Sport 24 , 592–596. 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.12.003 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wickens C. (1980). The structure of attentional resources, in Attention and Performance VIII , eds R. S. Nickerson (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; ), 239–257 [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilson M., Vine S., Wood G. (2009). The influence of anxiety on visual attentional control in basketball free throw shooting . J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 31 , 152–168. 10.1123/jsep.31.2.152 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang S., Wang Z., Wang L., Shi B., Peng S. (2021). Research on the influence of mental fatigue on information resources allocation of working memory . Sheng Wu Yi Xue Gong Cheng Xue Za Zhi 38 , 671–677. 10.7507/1001-5515.202007050 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yarrow K., Brown P., Krakauer J. (2009). Inside the brain of an elite athlete: the neural processes that support high achievement in sports . Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 , 585–596. 10.1038/nrn2672 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zarić I., Milošević M., Kukić F., Dopsaj M., Aminova A. S., Komkova I. A. (2021). Association of mental toughness with competitive success of young female basketball players . Human Sport Med. 21 , 86–93. 10.14529/hsm210111 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Assessment of Challenges and Opportunity of Basketball Developments in Some Selected Regions in Ethiopia

2015, Journal of Education and Practice

Related Papers

Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Sports

Gemechu Tufa

International Journal of Physical Education & Sports Sciences

Mohammed Endris

Lawal Y Ibrahim

Abstract Sports Performance and achievements have been the avenue through which great nations of the world exhibit their supremacy over others through effective sports development strategy. Effective sports development requires variables like sports policy, sports personnel, sports funding, sports program, sports facilities and sponsorship. The extent to what these variables are met shall no doubt affect the effectiveness of any sports development. Two distinguishing features of the Nigeria sports system are its central organization and its employment for specific socio-political objectives. It is against this background that these papers will x-ray the organization and management of sports and sports development in the enhanced role of sports and in contrast with developed nations' sports system and management.

Journal of Physical Education and Sport Management

adeboye elumaro

International Journal of current Research

Aemero Asmamaw Chalachew

The objective of this study was to assess the development of students in qualitative case study design and individual interviews strengths and weaknesses of the programs. For most of the study participants the prevailing environment, learning and between students and specified sport clubs they predominantly theoretical components individual clubs that used players of high study participants report that the two sports academies were in short of sports materials, equipment, facilities, suggested and psychological trainings of friendly Copyright©2016, Aemero Asmamaw et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Att use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Journal of Health Science

Leonardo Nhantumbo

The reference values are very useful to distinguish, in this case, the performance of coordination of technical skills and motor skills with ball, allowing an evaluation to be performed in order to help in the teaching-learning-training process. The aim of this study was to propose reference values of ball coordination of basketball-specific skills and motor skills for the teaching-learning-coaching process of the Mozambican children and youth athlete. A total of 165 young men and women aged 15 to 16 years old were evaluated, being 99 male (15.7±0.46) and 66 females (15.48±0.50). Of this universe, 30 athletes were an integral part of the national team under-16 teams that participated in the African Championship of Basketball (Afrobasket&#39;2017) being 15 athletes by sex. For the motor skills evaluation (cardiopulmonary resistance), displacement velocity, abdominal strength and endurance, upper limb resistance, upper limb explosive force, static vertical propulsion, vertical propuls...

tefera tadesse

Youth athletes’ talent identification and development has become a serious concern around the globe. However, empirical evidence regarding youth sports policies and practices is limited. Emphasizing the talent development needs of youth volleyball players, in this study, the authors evaluated the practices and challenges of a youth volleyball development program in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. This study addressed this concern by drawing upon Stufflebeam’s context, input, process, product (CIPP) model to explore a youth volleyball development program across the training sites located in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. With the help of this model, this study evaluated the prevailing contexts, allocated inputs, program implementation processes, and products. To this end, this study used multiple case studies involving ten youth project sites. The study participants included samples of participants (n = 179), consisting of youth volleyball players (n = 167), their coaches (n = 8),...

Theodros Berhanu(PhD)

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the interpersonal relationships among the coach, players, and management of the Ethiopia Water Sport Association basketball team. The participants in this research were consisted of fourteen (14) basketball players, one head coach of the team. The participants were selected non random sample as purposely. The major instruments in this study were questionnaire and field observation. The findings of the study related to the interpersonal relationships among players of the team indicated that, the majority of players’ responded that there is a mutual respect and were made freely communicate and take responsibilities about each other for loss or poor performance of the team. Players’, however, were encouraged by the coach to improve confidence, close and informal relationships. Specifically, players’ were found to have perceived coaches as organizers and facilitators, whom aided them to reach their optimal preparation for performance. Key w or...

Hrishikesh Patel

The present study attempted to discover the deterrent factors that prevailed on the youth athletics sport-training projects of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People’s Regional State, Ethiopia. The study was delimited to six youth athletics sport training projects of the southern regional state, namely HagereSelam, Moroch, Arbegonna, Mesha, Sore, and, Yem. To achieve the stated purpose, the researchers mainly used qualitative case study methods, as the topic under the study focused on athletics sport training projects which were earlier identified by the regional state youth and sports bureau, and incorporated limited numbers of research participants. Among the trainee-athletes dispersed throughout six projects, seventeen trainee-athletes (Male 9; Female 8) were purposefully selected by considering major attributes such as training age, athletics sub-disciplines, academic background, information-rich cases, gender representation, and agreement of participants, as 3 male coa...

Wondafrash Negash

This study is conducted with ultimate objective of identify and evaluate the training and contribution of youth football project to generate new successor players with the case of Addis Ababa youth football projects. Four sample youth projects were selected, from ten youth football projects using cluster sampling technique. Thus, the subjects in the study were 50 randomly selected football players from the four clubs and four purposively selected coaches. In addition to this 6 respondents’ were involved in interview by using purposive method. The data was collected through questionnaire, interview and observation checklist. Descriptive (frequency distribution and percentage, mean) method of data analysis has been utilized to analyze the data for questioners. Whereas the data gathered through interview and observation were analyzed through descriptive statements. A descriptive survey research design was employed as a general approach in the study. The findings of the study indicated ...

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Alen Rismayadi

Journal of Social Sciences and Management Studies

Dr.Biruk H U N D I T O Lodebo (PhD)

dagne getachew

Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga

Yunyun Yudiana

Journal of Exercise Science & Physiotherapy

Tariku Assefa

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

EC PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY EC PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY Research Article

Daniel Getnet

timothy kajja

International Journal of Social Economics.

African Sports Law and Business Bulletin

Kelvin C Omuojine

Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education (JASRAE)

Daniel Getnet , Tesfaye Dessalegn

Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports

Clifford Mallett

Elumaro Adeboye

Branka Matković

Abiola Richard

European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education

Abdulaziz Mussema

Larissa Galatti

The Swedish Journal of Scientific Research (SJSR)

International Journal of Kinesiology & Sports Science

Dessalegn W A S E Mola

hizkiyas mekonnen

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Search Close search
• Find a journal
• Search calls for papers
• Journal Suggester
• Open access publishing

We’re here to help

Find guidance on Author Services

Your download is now in progress and you may close this window

• Choose new content alerts to be informed about new research of interest to you
• Easy remote access to your institution's subscriptions on any device, from any location
• Save your searches and schedule alerts to send you new results
• Export your search results into a .csv file to support your research

Login or register to access this feature

Register now or learn more

Transtemporal sport histories; or, rethinking the ‘invention’ of American basketball

• Cite this article
• https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2019.1597855

• Full Article
• Figures & data
• Reprints & Permissions
• Read this article /doi/full/10.1080/17430437.2019.1597855?needAccess=true

The predominant narrative on the history of basketball assumes that James Naismith ‘invented’ the game in 1891. This narrative argues the game emerged as a modern sport different in design and significance from pre-existing, ‘pre-modern’ ballgames. Naismith is now generally accepted as the singular ‘inventor’ of modern basketball. This essay introduces the ‘transtemporal history’ in conversation with postcolonial and decolonial theory as a framework for critiquing the notion of ‘inventions’ in sport history. A transtemporal framework, informed by French historian Fernand Braudel’s concept of the ‘longue durée’, highlights the episodic expression of contested, yet enduring ideas across a long time span, serving to destabilize the temporal dichotomies of Western modernity that essentialize the nature and meaning of ‘pre-modern’ games. The essay outlines the transtemporal history and explores its potential utility by critiquing the notion that basketball was ‘invented’ by a singular subject in the global history of organized ballgames.

• modern sports
• longue durée
• decoloniality
• sport history

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the reviewers for their substantive comments, and David L. Andrews, Tim Chandler, Shannon Jette, Damion Thomas, and the late Ronald Schultz for their invaluable guidance and critique.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Log in via your institution

Log in to taylor & francis online, restore content access.

• 48 hours access to article PDF & online version
• Article PDF can be downloaded
• Article PDF can be printed
• 30 days online access to complete issue
• Article PDFs can be downloaded
• Article PDFs can be printed
• Back to Top

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations. Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.

• People also read
• Recommended articles

To cite this article:

Download citation.

Presentations made painless

• Get Premium

114 Basketball Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Title: 114 Basketball Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Introduction:

Basketball is a popular and dynamic sport that has captivated the hearts of millions worldwide. Whether you are an avid player, a die-hard fan, or simply interested in sports, writing an essay about basketball can offer a unique and engaging experience. To help you get started, we have compiled a list of 114 basketball essay topic ideas and examples. From historical milestones to the impact of basketball on society, these topics cover a wide range of aspects related to the sport. Let's explore some of the exciting possibilities!

• The Evolution of Basketball: From its inception to modern-day techniques and strategies.
• The Impact of Basketball on American Culture: How basketball has influenced music, fashion, and entertainment.
• The Role of Women in Basketball: Examining the growth and contributions of female athletes in the sport.
• The Psychological Benefits of Basketball: Exploring the positive effects of playing basketball on mental health.
• The Business of Basketball: Analyzing the economic aspects of the sport, including sponsorships and endorsements.
• The Importance of Teamwork in Basketball: Discussing how collaboration and cooperation contribute to success on the court.
• The Role of Coaches in Basketball: Investigating the influence of coaches on player development and team performance.
• The Impact of Basketball on Youth Development: Examining how basketball can shape character, discipline, and leadership skills.
• The Rivalry Between NBA Teams: Analyzing legendary rivalries and their impact on the sport.
• The Psychology of Winning and Losing in Basketball: Exploring the mindset of athletes during victories and defeats.
• The Influence of Basketball in Education: Assessing the benefits of integrating basketball into school curricula.
• The Globalization of Basketball: Investigating how the sport has spread and gained popularity worldwide.
• The Role of Basketball in Social Justice Movements: Examining the efforts of basketball players to advocate for equality and social change.
• The Impact of Basketball Analytics: Analyzing the use of data and statistics in basketball strategy and player evaluation.
• The Role of Basketball in Community Development: Discussing how basketball programs can foster a sense of belonging and unity in local communities.

To provide a glimpse into the potential depth and breadth of basketball essay topics, here are a few examples:

• The Legendary Rivalry: Comparing and contrasting the rivalry between Magic Johnson and Larry Bird.
• The Rise of Women's Basketball: Investigating the evolution of the WNBA and its impact on gender equality in sports.
• The Influence of Michael Jordan: Analyzing the cultural impact and legacy of one of the greatest basketball players of all time.
• From Slum to Stardom: Exploring the inspiring journey of basketball players who overcame adversity to achieve success.
• The Global Phenomenon: Examining the impact of Yao Ming on the popularity of basketball in China.
• The Power of Basketball Films: Analyzing how movies like "Hoosiers" and "Space Jam" have contributed to the sport's cultural significance.
• The NBA and Social Activism: Discussing the efforts of players like LeBron James and Colin Kaepernick in advocating for social justice.

Conclusion:

Basketball offers a vast array of essay topics that can captivate and inspire both sports enthusiasts and academic minds alike. Whether you choose to delve into historical moments, cultural impacts, or the psychology behind the sport, exploring the various aspects of basketball can lead to thought-provoking and engaging essays. The 114 topic ideas and examples provided here are just the tip of the iceberg, so feel free to dive deeper and discover your own unique basketball essay topics.

Want to research companies faster?

Instantly access industry insights

Let PitchGrade do this for me

Leverage powerful AI research capabilities

We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.

Explore More Content

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

© 2024 Pitchgrade