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Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

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A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

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Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

History is a study of past incidents, and it’s different from natural science. In natural science, researchers prefer direct observations. Whereas in historical research, a researcher collects, analyses the information to understand, describe, and explain the events that occurred in the past.

They aim to test the truthfulness of the observations made by others. Historical researchers try to find out what happened exactly during a certain period of time as accurately and as closely as possible. It does not allow any manipulation or control of  variables .

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

You can use historical research method to:

• Uncover the unknown fact.
• Answer questions
• Identify the association between the past and present.
• Understand the culture based on past experiences..
• Record and evaluate the contributions of individuals, organisations, and institutes.

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Historical research involves the following steps:

• Select the Research Topic
• Collect the Data
• Analyse the Data
• Criticism of Data
• Present your Findings

Tips to Collect Data

Step 1 – select the research topic.

If you want to conduct historical research, it’s essential to select a research topic before beginning your research. You can follow these tips while choosing a topic and  developing a research question .

• Consider your previous study as your previous knowledge and data can make your research enjoyable and comfortable for you.
• List your interests and focus on the current events to find a promising question.
• Take notes of regular activities and consider your personal experiences on a specific topic.
• Develop a question using your research topic.
• Explore your research question by asking yourself when? Why? How

Step 2- Collect the Data

It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for  data collection . Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources  are the original first-hand resources such as documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:

Conscious Information : It’s a type of information recorded and restored consciously in the form of written, oral documents, or the actual witnesses of the incident that occurred in the past.

It includes the following sources:

Unconscious information : It’s a type of information restored in the form of remains or relics.

It includes information in the following forms:

Secondary Sources

Sometimes it’s impossible to access primary sources, and researchers rely on secondary sources to obtain information for their research. 

It includes:

• Publications
• Periodicals
• Encyclopedia

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

After collecting the information, you need to analyse it. You can use data analysis methods  like 

• Thematic analysis
• Coding system
• Theoretical model ( Researchers use multiple theories to explain a specific phenomenon, situations, and behavior types.)
• Quantitative data to validate

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

Data criticism is a process used for identifying the validity and reliability of the collected data. It’s of two types such as:

External Criticism :

It aims at identifying the external features of the data such as signature, handwriting, language, nature, spelling, etc., of the documents. It also involves the physical and chemical tests of paper, paint, ink, metal cloth, or any collected object.

Internal Criticism :

It aims at identifying the meaning and reliability of the data. It focuses on the errors, printing, translation, omission, additions in the documents. The researchers should use both external and internal criticism to ensure the validity of the data.

Step 5 – Present your Findings

While presenting the  findings of your research , you need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. Historical material can be organised based on the theme and topic, and it’s known as thematic and topical arrangement. You can follow these tips while writing your research paper :

Build Arguments and Narrative

Your research aims not just to collect information as these are the raw materials of research. You need to build a strong argument and narrate the details of past events or incidents based on your findings. 

Organise your Argument

You can review the literature and other researchers’ contributions to the topic you’ve chosen to enhance your thinking and argument.

Proofread, Revise and Edit

After putting your findings on a paper, you need to proofread it to weed out the errors, rewrite it to improve, and edit it thoroughly before submitting it.

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In this world of technology, many people rely on Google to find out any information. All you have to do is enter a few keywords and sit back. You’ll find several relevant results onscreen.

It’s an effective and quick way of gathering information. Sometimes historical documents are not accessible to everyone online, and you need to visit traditional libraries to find out historical treasures. It will help you explore your knowledge along with data collection. 

You can visit historical places, conduct interviews, review literature, and access  primary and secondary  data sources such as books, newspapers, publications, documents, etc. You can take notes while collecting the information as it helps to organise the data accurately.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the initial steps to perform historical research.

Initial steps for historical research:

• Define research scope and period.
• Gather background knowledge.
• Identify primary and secondary sources.
• Develop research questions.
• Plan research approach.
• Begin data collection and analysis.

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In correlational research, a researcher measures the relationship between two or more variables or sets of scores without having control over the variables.

A survey includes questions relevant to the research topic. The participants are selected, and the questionnaire is distributed to collect the data.

What are the different types of research you can use in your dissertation? Here are some guidelines to help you choose a research strategy that would make your research more credible.

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This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research.  It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

• locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
• find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
• verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

• Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
• Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
• Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
• History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

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• Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 12:48 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/introhist

The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

• Zachary Schrag

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The essential handbook for doing historical research in the twenty-first century

• Skills for Scholars

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian’s craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step through all phases of historical research, from narrowing a topic and locating sources to taking notes, crafting a narrative, and connecting one’s work to existing scholarship. He shows how researchers extract knowledge from the widest range of sources, such as government documents, newspapers, unpublished manuscripts, images, interviews, and datasets. He demonstrates how to use archives and libraries, read sources critically, present claims supported by evidence, tell compelling stories, and much more. Featuring a wealth of examples that illustrate the methods used by seasoned experts, The Princeton Guide to Historical Research reveals that, however varied the subject matter and sources, historians share basic tools in the quest to understand people and the choices they made.

• Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication
• Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian
• Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches
• Shares tips for researchers at every skill level

Skills for Scholars: The new tools of the trade

Awards and recognition.

• Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association
• A Choice Outstanding Academic Title of the Year

• Introduction: History Is for Everyone
• History Is the Study of People and the Choices They Made
• History Is a Means to Understand Today’s World
• History Combines Storytelling and Analysis
• History Is an Ongoing Debate
• Autobiography
• Everything Has a History
• Narrative Expansion
• From the Source
• Public History
• Research Agenda
• Factual Questions
• Interpretive Questions
• Opposing Forces
• Internal Contradictions
• Competing Priorities
• Determining Factors
• Hidden or Contested Meanings
• Before and After
• Dialectics Create Questions, Not Answers
• Copy Other Works
• History Big and Small
• Pick Your People
• Add and Subtract
• Narrative versus Thematic Schemes
• The Balky Time Machine
• Local and Regional
• Transnational and Global
• Comparative
• What Is New about Your Approach?
• Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?
• What Have Others Written?
• Are Others Working on It?
• What Might Your Critics Say?
• Primary versus Secondary Sources
• Balancing Your Use of Secondary Sources
• Sets of Sources
• Sources as Records of the Powerful
• No Source Speaks for Itself
• Languages and Specialized Reading
• Choose Sources That You Love
• Workaday Documents
• Specialized Periodicals
• Criminal Investigations and Trials
• Official Reports
• Letters and Petitions
• Institutional Records
• Scholarship
• Motion Pictures and Recordings
• Buildings and Plans
• The Working Bibliography
• The Open Web
• Limits of the Open Web
• Bibliographic Databases
• Full-Text Databases
• Oral History
• What Is an Archive?
• Archives and Access
• Read the Finding Aid
• Follow the Rules
• Work with Archivists
• Types of Cameras
• How Much to Shoot?
• Managing Expectations
• Duck, Duck, Goose
• Credibility
• Avoid Catastrophe
• Complete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right Order
• Maintain Momentum
• Kinds of Software
• Word Processors
• Means of Entry
• A Good Day’s Work
• Word Count Is Your Friend
• Managing Research Assistants
• Research Diary
• When to Stop
• Note-Taking as Mining
• Note-Taking as Assembly
• Identify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if Needed
• Distinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your Own
• Allow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of Information
• Provide the Right Level of Detail
• Notebooks and Index Cards
• Word Processors for Note-Taking
• Plain Text and Markdown
• Reference Managers
• Note-Taking Apps
• Relational Databases
• Spreadsheets
• Glossaries and Alphabetical Lists
• Image Catalogs
• Other Specialized Formats
• The Working Draft
• Variants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page Papers
• Thesis Statement
• Historiography
• Sections as Independent Essays
• Topic Sentences
• Answering Questions
• Invisible Bullet Points
• The Perils of Policy Prescriptions
• A Model (T) Outline
• Flexibility
• Protagonists
• Antagonists
• Bit Players
• The Shape of the Story
• The Controlling Idea
• Alchemy: Turning Sources to Stories
• Turning Points
• Counterfactuals
• Point of View
• Symbolic Details
• Combinations
• Speculation
• Is Your Jargon Really Necessary?
• Defining Terms
• Word Choice as Analysis
• Period Vocabulary or Anachronism?
• Integrate Images into Your Story
• Put Numbers in Context
• Summarize Data in Tables and Graphs
• Why We Cite
• Citation Styles
• Active Verbs
• People as Subjects
• Signposting
• First Person
• Putting It Aside
• Reverse Outlining
• Auditing Your Word Budget
• Writing for the Ear
• Conferences
• Social Media
• Coauthorship
• Tough, Fair, and Encouraging
• Manuscript and Book Reviews
• Journal Articles
• Book chapters
• Websites and Social Media
• Museums and Historic Sites
• Press Appearances and Op-Eds
• Law and Policy
• Graphic History, Movies, and Broadway Musicals
• Acknowledgments

"This volume is a complete and sophisticated addition to any scholar’s library and a boon to the curious layperson. . . . [A] major achievement."— Choice Reviews

"This book is quite simply a gem. . . . Schrag’s accessible style and comprehensive treatment of the field make this book a valuable resource."—Alan Sears, Canadian Journal of History

"A tour de force that will help all of us be more capable historians. This wholly readable, delightful book is packed with good advice that will benefit seasoned scholars and novice researchers alike."—Nancy Weiss Malkiel, author of "Keep the Damned Women Out": The Struggle for Coeducation

"An essential and overdue contribution. Schrag's guide offers a lucid breakdown of what historians do and provides plenty of examples."—Jessica Mack, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

"Extraordinarily useful. If there is another book that takes apart as many elements of the historian's craft the way that Schrag does and provides so many examples, I am not aware of it."—James Goodman, author of But Where Is the Lamb?

"This is an engaging guide to being a good historian and all that entails."—Diana Seave Greenwald, Assistant Curator of the Collection, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum

"Impressive and engaging. Schrag gracefully incorporates the voices of dozens, if not hundreds, of fellow historians. This gives the book a welcome conversational feeling, as if the reader were overhearing a lively discussion among friendly historians."—Sarah Dry, author of Waters of the World: The Story of the Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole

"This is a breathtaking book—wide-ranging, wonderfully written, and extremely useful. Every page brims with fascinating, well-chosen illustrations of creative research, writing, and reasoning that teach and inspire."—Amy C. Offner, author of Sorting Out the Mixed Economy

historyprofessor.org website, maintained by Zachary M. Schrag, Professor of History at George Mason University

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If you are just starting out in HPS, this will be the first time for many years – perhaps ever – that you have done substantial library or museum based research. The number of general studies may seem overwhelming, yet digging out specific material relevant to your topic may seem like finding needles in a haystack. Before turning to the specific entries that make up this guide, there are a few general points that apply more widely.

Planning your research

Because good research and good writing go hand in hand, probably the single most important key to successful research is having a good topic. For that, all you need at the beginning are two things: (a) a problem that you are genuinely interested in and (b) a specific issue, controversy, technique, instrument, person, etc. that is likely to offer a fruitful way forward for exploring your problem. In the early stages, it's often a good idea to be general about (a) and very specific about (b). So you might be interested in why people decide to become doctors, and decide to look at the early career of a single practitioner from the early nineteenth century, when the evidence for this kind of question happens to be unusually good. You can get lots of advice from people in the Department about places to look for topics, especially if you combine this with reading in areas of potential interest. Remember that you're more likely to get good advice if you're able to mesh your interests with something that a potential supervisor knows about. HPS is such a broad field that it's impossible for any department to cover all aspects of it with an equal degree of expertise. It can be reassuring to know that your topic will evolve as your research develops, although it is vital that you establish some basic parameters relatively quickly. Otherwise you will end up doing the research for two, three or even four research papers or dissertations, when all you need is the material for one.

Before beginning detailed work, it's obviously a good idea to read some of the secondary literature surrounding your subject. The more general books are listed on the reading lists for the Part II lecture courses, and some of the specialist literature is listed in these research guides. This doesn't need to involve an exhaustive search, at least not at this stage, but you do need to master the fundamentals of what's been done if you're going to be in a position to judge the relevance of anything you find. If there are lectures being offered in your topic, make sure to attend them; and if they are offered later in the year, try to see if you can obtain a preliminary bibliography from the lecturer.

After that, it's usually a good idea to immerse yourself in your main primary sources as soon as possible. If you are studying a museum object, this is the time to look at it closely; if you're writing about a debate, get together the main papers relevant to it and give them a close read; if you're writing about a specific experiment, look at the published papers, the laboratory notebook, and the relevant letters. Don't spend hours in the early stages of research ferreting out hard-to-find details, unless you're absolutely positive that they are of central importance to the viability of your topic. Start to get a feel for the material you have, and the questions that might be explored further. Make an outline of the main topics that you hope to cover, organized along what you see as the most interesting themes (and remember, 'background' is not usually an interesting theme on its own).

At this stage, research can go in many different directions. At some point, you'll want to read more about the techniques other historians have used for exploring similar questions. Most fields have an established repertoire of ways of approaching problems, and you need to know what these are, especially if you decide to reject them. One of the advantages of an interdisciplinary field like HPS is that you are exposed to different and often conflicting ways of tackling similar questions. Remember that this is true within history itself, and you need to be aware of alternatives. This may well involve looking further afield, at classic books or articles that are not specifically on 'your' subject. For example, it may be that you could find some helpful ideas for a study of modern scientific portraiture in a book on the eighteenth century. The best books dealing with educational maps may not be on the astronomical ones you are studying, but on ones used for teaching classical geography. See where the inspiration for works you admire comes from, and have a look at the sources they have used. This will help you develop the kind of focussed questions that make for a successful piece of work.

As you develop an outline and begin to think through your topic in more detail, you'll be in good position to plan possible lines of research. Don't try to find out everything about your topic: pick those aspects that are likely to prove most fruitful for the direction your essay seems to be heading. For example, it may be worth spending a long time searching for biographical details about a person if their career and life are central to your analysis; but in many other cases, such issues may not be very important. If your interest is in the reception of a work, it is likely to be more fruitful to learn a lot about a few commentaries or reviews (where they appeared, who wrote them, and so forth) than to gather in randomly all the comments you can find.

Follow up hints in other people's footnotes. Works that are otherwise dull or outdated in approach are sometimes based on very solid research. One secondary reference to a crucial letter or newspaper article can save you hours of mindless trawling, and lead you straight to the information you need. Moreover, good historians often signal questions or sources that they think would be worth investigating further.

Remember that the best history almost always depends on developing new approaches and interpretations, not on knowing about a secret archive no one has used before. If you give your work time to develop, and combine research with writing, you will discover new sources, and (better still) a fresh importance for material that has supposedly been known for a long time. As you become familiar with your topic, you are likely to find that evidence you dug out at the beginning of your project is much more significant than you thought it was. In historical research, the most important evidence often isn't sitting there on the surface – it's something you need to dig out through close reading and an understanding of the situation in which the document you are studying was written, or in which the object was produced. This is especially true of instruments, paintings and other non-textual sources.

Some standard reference works

Your research should become more focussed as time goes on. Don't just gather randomly: you should always have at least some idea of why you are looking for something, and what you might hope to find. Make guesses, follow up hunches, see if an idea you have has the possibility to work out. At the beginning, it can be valuable to learn the full range of what is available, but eventually you should be following up specific issues, a bit like a detective tracing the clues to a mystery. It is at this stage of research, which is often best done in conjunction with writing up sections of your project, that knowing where to find answers to specific questions is most useful. There is nothing more disheartening than spending a week to find a crucial fact, only to discover that it's been sitting on the shelf next to you all term. The Whipple has a wide variety of guides, biographical dictionaries and bibliographies, so spend a few minutes early on looking at the reference shelves.

Every major country has a national biographical dictionary (the new version of the British one is the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , available 2004 online). For better-known scientists, a good place to start is Charles C. Gillispie (ed.) Dictionary of Scientific Biography (1970–1980). There are more specialized dictionaries for every scientific field, from entomology to astronomy. The University Library has a huge selection of biographical sources; ask your supervisor about the best ones for your purpose.

Preliminary searching for book titles and other bibliographical information is now often best done online, and every historian should know how to use the British Library's online search facility; COPAC (the UK national library database); and WorldCat (an international database). All of these are accessible through the HPS Whipple Library website (under 'other catalogues'). At the time of writing, the University Library is remains one of the few libraries of its size to have many of its records not available online, so remember that you have to check the green guard-book catalogues (and the supplementary catalogues) for most items published before 1977. It is hoped that this situation will be rectified soon. There are also numerous bibliographies for individual sciences and subjects, together with catalogues of relevant manuscripts. Most of these are listed elsewhere in this guide.

As questions arise, you will want to be able to access books and articles by other historians that touch upon your subject. There are many sources for this listed elsewhere in this guide, but you should definitely know about the Isis Current Bibliography and The Wellcome Bibliography for the History of Medicine . Both are available online, the former through the RLG History of Science, Technology and Medicine database, the latter through the website of the Wellcome Library.

Libraries and museums

Finally, a word in praise of libraries and museums. As the comments above make clear, the internet is invaluable for searching for specific pieces of information. If you need a bibliographical reference or a general reading list from a course at another university, it is an excellent place to begin. If you are looking for the source of an unidentified quotation, typing it into Google (or an appropriate database held by the University Library) will often turn up the source in seconds. Many academic journals are now online, as are the texts of many books, though not always in a paginated or citable form.

For almost all historical topics, however, libraries filled with printed books and journals will remain the principal tools for research, just as museums will continue to be essential to any work dealing with the material culture of past science. The reason for this is simple: what is on the internet is the result of decisions by people in the past decade, while libraries and museums are the product of a continuous history of collecting over several thousand years. Cambridge has some of the best collections for the history of science anywhere. Despite what is often said, this is not because of the famous manuscripts or showpiece books (these are mostly available in other ways), but because of the depth and range of its collections across the whole field. The Whipple Library is small and friendly, and has an unparalleled selection of secondary works selected over many years – don't just go for specific titles you've found in the catalogue, try browsing around, and ask the librarians for help if you can't see what you are looking for. Explore the Whipple Museum and talk to the curator and the staff. There are rich troves of material in these departmental collections, on topics ranging from phrenology and microscopy to the early development of pocket calculators. Become familiar with what the University Library has to offer: it is large and sometimes idiosyncratic, but worth getting to know well if you are at all serious about research. It is a fantastic instrument for studying the human past – the historian's equivalent of CERN or the Hubble Telescope. And all you need to get in is a student ID.

Further reading

Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. William, The Craft of Research , 2nd ed. (University of Chicago Press, 2003).

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How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics.

Historical research methods primarily involve collecting information from primary and secondary sources. While differences exist between these sources, organizations and institutions can use both types of sources to assess historical events and provide proper context comprehensively.

Using historical research methods, historians provide institutions with historical insights that can give perspectives on the future.

Individuals interested in advancing their careers as historians can pursue an advanced degree, such as a Master of Arts in History , to help them develop a systematic understanding of historical research and learn about the use of digital tools for acquiring, accessing, and managing historical information.

Historians use historical research methods to obtain data from primary and secondary sources and, then, assess how the information contributes to understanding a historical period or event. Historical research methods are used with primary and secondary sources. Below is a description of each type of source.

What Is a Primary Source?              

Primary sources—raw data containing first-person accounts and documents—are foundational to historical and academic research. Examples of primary sources include eyewitness accounts of historical events, written testimonies, public records, oral representations, legal documents, artifacts, photographs, art, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. Individuals often can find primary sources in archives and collections in universities, libraries, and historical societies.

A primary source, also known as primary data, is often characterized by the time of its creation. For example, individuals studying the U.S. Constitution’s beginnings can use The Federalist Papers, a collection of essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, written from October 1787 to May 1788, as a primary source for their research. In this example, the information was witnessed firsthand and created at the time of the event.

What Is a Secondary Source?              

Primary sources are not always easy to find. In the absence of primary sources, secondary sources can play a vital role in describing historical events. A historian can create a secondary source by analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting information or data provided in primary sources. For example, a modern-day historian may use The Federalist Papers and other primary sources to reveal historical insights about the series of events that led to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. As a result, the secondary source, based on historical facts, becomes a reliable source of historical data for others to use to create a comprehensive picture of an event and its significance.

The Value of Historical Research for Providing Historical Perspectives

Current global politics has its roots in the past. Historical research offers an essential context for understanding our modern society. It can inform global concepts, such as foreign policy development or international relations. The study of historical events can help leaders make informed decisions that impact society, culture, and the economy.

Take, for example, the Industrial Revolution. Studying the history of the rise of industry in the West helps to put the current world order in perspective. The recorded events of that age reveal that the first designers of the systems of industry, including the United States, dominated the global landscape in the following decades and centuries. Similarly, the digital revolution is creating massive shifts in international politics and society. Historians play a pivotal role in using historical research methods to record and analyze information about these trends to provide future generations with insightful historical perspectives.

In addition to creating meaningful knowledge of global and economic affairs, studying history highlights the perspectives of people and groups who triumphed over adversity. For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women’s voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform.

History also is the story of the collective identity of people and regions. Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different cultures, creating opportunities for people to become more culturally aware and empowered.

The Tools and Techniques of Historical Research Methods

A primary source is not necessarily an original source. For example, not everyone can access the original essays written by Hamilton because they are precious and must be preserved and protected. However, thanks to digitization, institutions can access, manage, and interpret essential information, artifacts, and images from the essays without fear of degradation.

Using technology to digitize historical information creates what is known as digital history. It offers opportunities to advance scholarly research and expand knowledge to new audiences. For example, individuals can access a digital copy of The Federalist Papers from the Library of Congress’s website anytime, from anywhere. This digital copy can still serve as a primary source because it contains the same content as the original paper version created hundreds of years ago.

As more primary and secondary sources are digitized, researchers are increasingly using artificial intelligence (AI) to search, gather, and analyze these sources. An AI method known as optical character recognition can help historians with digital research. Historians also can use AI techniques to close gaps in historical information. For example, an AI system developed by DeepMind uses deep neural networks to help historians recreate missing pieces and restore ancient Greek texts on stone tablets that are thousands of years old.

As digital tools associated with historical research proliferate, individuals seeking to advance in a history career need to develop technical skills to use advanced technology in their research. Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and critical technology skills to advance in the field of history.

Prepare to Make an Impact

Through effective historical research methods, institutions, organizations, and individuals can learn the significance of past events and communicate important insights for a better future. In museums, government agencies, universities and colleges, nonprofits, and historical associations, the combination of technology and historical research plays a central role in extending the reach of historical information to new audiences. It can also guide leaders charged with making important decisions that can impact geopolitics, society, economic development, community building, and more.

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and skills to use technology to advance their careers across many industries and fields of study. The program’s curriculum offers students the flexibility to choose from four concentrations—Public History, American History, World History, or Legal and Constitutional History—to customize their studies based on their career goals and personal interests.

Learn how Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History degree can prepare individuals for career success in the field of history.

Recommended Readings

What Is Digital History? A Guide to Digital History Resources, Museums, and Job Description Old World vs. New World History: A Curriculum Comparison How to Become a Researcher

Getting Started with Primary Sources , Library of Congress What Is a Primary Source? , ThoughtCo. Full Text of The Federalist Papers , Library of Congress Digital History , The Inclusive Historian’s Handbook Historians in Archives , American Historical Association How AI Helps Historians Solve Ancient Puzzles , Financial Times  

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Research Methodologies for the Creative Arts & Humanities: Historical research

Historical research.

Definition:

“ Historical method refers to the use of primary historical data to answer a question. Because the nature of the data depends on the question being asked, data may include demographic records, such as birth and death certificates; newspapers articles; letters and diaries; government records; or even architectural drawings.

The use of historical data poses several broad questions:

1. Are the data appropriate to the theoretical question being posed?

2. How were these data originally collected, or what meanings were embedded in them at the time of collection?

3. How should these data be interpreted, or what meanings do these data hold now?"

See Tuchman: The historical method (2004)

• Moore, T. Australia's Bohemian tradition (2010)
• Goodall, H. A history of aboriginal communities in N.S.W., 1909-1939 (2007)
• Kuskens, G. The grandest improvement in the country... (2006)

ECU Library Resources - Historical Research

• The critical historian
• Deconstructing history
• The discourse of musicology
• Empirical musicology: aims, methods, prospects
• Fact and relevance : essays on historical method
• Fortunes of history
• Framing public memory
• The historian as detective : essays on evidence
• The historical method of Herodotus
• Modern methods for musicology
• On "what is history?"
• Research methods for history
• Historical Research Method Library Guide

Further Reading

• Evidence and proof in documentary research
• Historical Methods
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Research Methods for History

• Lucy Faire and Simon Gunn
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Edinburgh University Press
• Copyright year: 2016
• Audience: College/higher education;
• Main content: 288
• Other: 24 B/W illustrations
• Keywords: History
• Published: July 8, 2016
• ISBN: 9781474408745

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Neag School of Education

Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical research.

 Del Siegle, Ph.D. University of Connecticut [email protected] www.delsiegle.info

updated 2/01/2024

HIST 290 Historical Methods & Theory

"balancing" the history scales, history scholarship vs. history propogands, primary sources, secondary sources, grey area sources.

• Acknowledgement
• Finding Books & Videos
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• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window
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Your Librarian

A  primary source  is first hand evidence. It was there at the time of an event.

A  primary source  is contemporary to the period being studied.

Examples  of primary sources are: speeches, letters, comics/cartoons, songs, legislation, court decisions, journals/diaries, interviews, artifacts, autobiographies, statistics, experiments, and photographs.

Secondary sources interpret original documents and give you background information about the topic you want to research.

Examples of secondary sources are: articles, dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks and books that interpret or review research works.

Sometimes secondary sources can become primary sources. It all depends on how you are using the source.

If you use the source as supporting material for your argument and you are not interpreting the author's intentions or societal influences, it is a secondary source. However, if you use the source as an example for your argument and are interpreting the material, it is a primary source.

For example, if you are doing research on the current economic crisis and you are using newspaper articles to cite what the situation is (such as the banks declaring bankruptcy, unemployment, etc.), the articles are secondary sources. On the other hand, if you are doing research on the economic crisis in the 1930s and discussing the climate of the time, the articles become primary sources.

Common grey areas of historic research include:

• Newspapers/Magazines
• Encyclopedias
• History Texts

All materials from: Historiography: Ramapo College,   https://libguides.ramapo.edu/HIST201rice

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• > Writing History!
• > Historical Research: The Importance of the Research Question

Book contents

• Frontmatter
• Introduction
• Structure of the Book
• 1 Historical Research: The Importance of the Research Question
• 2 The Building Blocks of the Historical Method
• 3 Applying the Historical Method
• 4 Writing History: Narrative and Argument
• 5 Presentation and Historical Debate
• 6 A Historian – Now What?
• I Guidelines for Notes
• II Other Styles of Notes
• Acknowledgements

1 - Historical Research: The Importance of the Research Question

Historians provide insight into the past. By means of books, articles, websites, or presentations, they offer information to colleagues, students, and a wider public. In their work, historians constantly ask questions about the past, and they answer those questions by researching historical literature and sources. But how do you design a justified academic historical research project? How do you find a relevant subject, and how do you then define it? How do you formulate a good research question? Once you have your question, what are the next steps? This chapter deals with what you should take into account when setting up a research project. It addresses how a subject should be chosen, how to formulate a research question, and how to define your research in relation to the literature and source material. It also discusses how to go about organising the research, the role of advisers/supervisors, and how to handle comments and advice.

Subject and research question

Academic research is driven by various motives. It could be admiration for something beautiful or exceptional, interest in the working of certain processes, or concern about current questions. Sometimes a research question is born of the urge to show that something that is regarded as true is not so, or that it is not so simple or one-sided as it is represented by others. Curiosity, admiration, and even indignation – these are all legitimate motives. Your circumstances also influence what you find interesting, so it is important to reflect explicitly on how you arrive at a subject.

Designating a subject

When following a history programme, you might simply be given the task of writing about a certain subject. Historians also carry out research commissioned by third parties in the context of a broader research programme into which they bring their more specific interests and expertise. However, it is certainly all right to choose your research subject out of a purely personal interest if there is the opportunity to do so, for example when you write your Bachelor's or Master's thesis. In such cases, your topic could be simply a subject that appeals to you, suits your future plans, or requires certain talents that you want to develop. At the same time, when choosing a subject, you must bear in mind what contribution your research can make to the discipline or to society at large.

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• Historical Research: The Importance of the Research Question
• Sebas Rümke , Matthias van Rossum , Susan Legene , Jeannette Kamp
• Book: Writing History!
• Online publication: 12 December 2020
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9789048537624.002

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Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Jeffrey S. Ravel

Departments

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• Historical Methods
• Historiography

Learning Resource Types

Theories and methods in the study of history, course description.

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• UTEP Library
• UTEP Library Research Guides

Graduate-Level Historical Research

• Research Methods
• Archival Research
• Historiography
• Select Databases
• Historical Newspapers
• Theses and Dissertations
• Media and Microfilm
• Government Documents
• UTEP Special Collections
• Citing Sources

Qualitative and Quantitive Research

Historians rely on primary and secondary sources when conducting research and writing historical works. They also use qualitative and/or quantitative research methods to support their arguments and conclusions.

Here are some sources about research design and writing:

• Using Archives: A Guide to Effective Research
• Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research by Penny Tinkler, Special Collections Reference HM511.T56 2013
• Historical Research: A Guide by W.H. McDowell, ebook
• A Concise Companion to History edited by Ulinka Rublack, Main Stacks D13.C663 2011
• Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing by Anthony Brundage, Main Stacks D16.B893 2013
• Research Methods for History edited by Simon Gunn and Lucy Faire, ebook
• A Short Guide to Writing about History by Richard Marius, Main Stacks D13.M294 2002
• Historian's Guide to Statistics: Quantitative Analysis and Historical Research by Charles M. Dollar and Richard J. Jensen, Main Stacks HA29.D645
• Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide by Randy Joyner, William A. Rouse, and Allan A. Glathorn, Main Stacks LB2369.G56 2013
• The Craft of Research by Wayne C. Booth, ebook
• The Elements of Style by William Strunk and E.B. White, Main Stacks PE1408.S772 1972

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The Role of Botanicals in Traditional Medicine: Exploring Ancient and Modern Uses

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People have relied on plant-based remedies for centuries, as botanicals play a crucial role in traditional medicine. Ancient civilizations across the globe, including China, India, and the Americas, turned to plants for their curative properties. These cultures had faith in the therapeutic potential of plants to address various health concerns, from digestive system issues to skin problems. In our time, researchers are trying to understand the potential of these plants to gain a deeper understanding of their advantages. Some contemporary medications even stem from plant extracts with a long history of use. Yet, ensuring the safety and effectiveness of these natural treatments presents challenges. Scientists need to create standard usage methods and guarantee high-quality products. We should learn from both historical and current practices when it comes to plant-based medicine. By merging age-old wisdom with cutting-edge research, we can discover innovative ways to harness plants for health benefits while honoring ancient healing customs. Scientists face a tough task when they study plants used in old-fashioned healing. They need to prove these plants work and are safe, but they also want to respect age-old wisdom. Researchers have started running careful tests to check if these plants do what traditional healers say they do. They're trying to find out what makes these plants tick how they work in the body, and how much people should take. For this to work traditional healers, scientists, and rule-makers need to team up. By mixing old knowledge with new science tricks, we can get a full picture of how plants might help keep us healthy. New ways to look at chemicals and genes have made it easier to spot and understand the good stuff in plants. This helps create plant extracts that always have the same amount of the helpful ingredients. Looking ahead, we need clear rules about growing, picking, and preparing healing plants to keep them good quality and make sure we don't run out. We also need to teach doctors and regular folks about these plant medicines - how they can help and how to use them. This way, we can fit these old remedies into our modern health care in a smart way. This Research Topic aims to explore the multifaceted role of botanicals in traditional medicine, encompassing both historical perspectives and modern scientific advancements. Contributors are encouraged to investigate themes such as the pharmacological properties of specific botanicals, their traditional uses across different cultures, and the integration of botanical medicine into contemporary healthcare practices. Manuscripts may include original research articles focusing on clinical trials, laboratory studies elucidating the biochemical mechanisms of botanicals, ethnobotanical surveys documenting traditional knowledge, and reviews synthesizing current understanding and future directions in botanical medicine. We welcome manuscripts that address challenges in quality control, sustainability, and regulatory considerations in the cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants. The goal is to foster a comprehensive dialogue that bridges traditional wisdom with evidence-based medicine, promoting informed decisions in healthcare and advancing the global understanding of botanicals' therapeutic potential.

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Hydroxytyrosol in cancer research: recent and historical insights on discoveries and mechanisms of action

• Ajay Kumar 1 ,
• Brahmjot Singh 2 ,
• Kapil Paul 3 ,
• Palak Bakshi 4 ,
• Payal Bajaj 5 ,
• Manoj Kumar 6 ,
• Sukhvinder Dhiman 7 ,
• Shivam Jasrotia 8 ,
• Parveen Kumar 9 &
• Ranjan Dutta 10 , 11  

Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences volume  10 , Article number:  129 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Cancer is a persistent global health challenge, demanding continuous exploration of innovative therapeutic strategies. Hydroxytyrosol (HT), derived from olive oil, has garnered attention for its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, revitalizing interest due to recent breakthroughs in comprehending its intricate anticancer mechanisms.

This review conducts a detailed analysis of hydroxytyrosol’s molecular mechanisms in cancer. Delve into the complex pathways and processes underlying its anticancer properties, including its impact on critical cellular events such as inhibiting cancer cell growth, proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. We meticulously evaluate HT efficacy and safety through scrutiny of preclinical and clinical studies. Additionally, we explore the potential synergistic effects of combining HT with conventional cancer therapies to improve treatment outcomes while reducing side effects, offering a comprehensive approach to cancer management.

This review stands as a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers, providing profound insights into HT potent anticancer activity at the molecular level. It underscores the immense potential of natural compounds in the intricate realm of cancer management and highlights the urgent need for further research to translate these discoveries into effective clinical applications. Ultimately, it fosters the development of targeted and personalized therapeutic approaches, reigniting hope in the ongoing battle against cancer and enhancing the quality of life for those afflicted by this relentless disease.

Cancer refers to a set of functional abilities that human cells acquire when they transition from regular developmental stages to abnormal growth states, more especially abilities that are essential for the development of aggressive tumors [ 1 ]. Worldwide, the prevalence of cancer diseases is constantly rising, resulting in millions of fatalities every year. According to the most recent projections, the worldwide cancer burden will rise significantly over the coming decades, rising by 47% by 2040 compared to the year 2020 [ 2 , 3 ]. Globally, about ten million cancer patients died in 2020 and 19 million cancer patients were newly diagnosed which is expected to increase in future [ 3 , 4 ]. In the USA, approximately 2,001,140 new cancer patients and 611,720 cancer deaths are projected to occur in 2024 [ 5 ]. Deaths of cancer patients continued to be decreased by 2021, preventing over 4 million mortality since 1991 due to reductions in smoking, earlier diagnosis of cancers, and enhanced better quality treatment in both the adjuvant and metastatic settings. However, the rates of cancer cases increased in period of 2015–2019 by 0.6–1% every year for pancreas, breast and uterine corpus cancers and by 2–3% every year for kidney, prostate, liver (female) and human papillomavirus-associated oral cancers [ 5 ]. Therefore, finding innovative cancer treatment approaches is crucial to decreasing patient suffering and the cost of the current cost-prohibitive treatments.

More and more scientists worldwide are attempting to find innovative anticancer drugs and develop new effective techniques to treat this terrible disease as a result of numerous flaws in conventional therapeutic formulations. The advancement of science has ushered in the creation of numerous treatments as well as diagnostic techniques that have played a pivotal role in managing and, to some extent, even curing various types of cancer. Approximately 70–95 percent of people in underdeveloped nations still utilize traditional medicines today. The vast majority of currently used chemotherapy medications with clinical approval was derived from numerous natural sources, including microorganisms and terrestrial and aquatic plants [ 6 ]. Natural compounds and their derivatives, with their diverse structures and favorable pharmacological properties, demonstrate remarkable potential for developing chemotherapeutic agents [ 7 ]. As a result of this early accomplishment, numerous research organizations worldwide are committed to isolating novel structural leads from various plant species and evaluating them for possible anticancer actions [ 8 ].

Hydroxytyrosol (HT) is one of these promising substances, being a primary phenolic compound found in virgin olive oil. Oxygen and nitrogen free radicals are scavenged by the potent antioxidant HT. Additionally, in neural hybridoma cells, HT guards DNA from oxidative damage by activating Nrf2, and HT promotes the expression of antioxidant enzyme [ 9 ]. It also displays analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and inhibits the growth of colon and breast cancer cells by regulating gene expression, resulting in pro-apoptotic effects [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ].

While the precise mechanism of HT’s impact on cancer cells remains unclear, it may involve reduced Pin1 levels causing cyclin D1 to translocate to the cytoplasm, leading to its degradation. Cyclin D1 plays a vital role in driving the G1/S cell cycle transition, promoting the proliferation of tumor cells [ 15 ]. Pin1 is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase enzyme that plays a crucial role in the regulation of cell cycle progression. Pin1 specifically recognizes and binds to phosphorylated serine or threonine residues preceding proline in its substrate proteins. It has been implicated in the regulation of cyclin D1 stability [ 16 ]. The interaction between Pin1 and cyclin D1 has been shown to influence the subcellular localization of cyclin D1. Reduced levels of peptidyl-prolyl cis–trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 1 (Pin1) can disrupt the normal regulation of cyclin D1, leading to its translocation to the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, cyclin D1 is subjected to ubiquitin-mediated degradation, preventing its accumulation and promoting cell cycle arrest [ 17 ].

Furthermore, HT has shown protective properties against breast cancer development, safeguarding DNA in normal breast cells in vitro. Earlier research has shown its antioxidant, hypoglycemic, anti-thrombotic, hypocholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. Furthermore, hydroxytyrosol has demonstrated its ability to shield human erythrocytes from oxidative damage, promote eye health, modulate the immune system, and reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. It is also regarded as a crucial anticancer substance [ 12 , 18 , 19 ]. Many research studies have demonstrated that hydroxytyrosol exhibits both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics. Furthermore, it hinders the proliferation of various tumor cell lines by stimulating molecular signaling pathways that induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest [ 20 , 21 ]. The growth of pancreatic cancer cells has also been inhibited by this substance in a dose-dependent manner [ 22 ]. With a focus on plant by-products, we sought to study the most significant and promising studies relating to novel chemical hydroxytyrosol derived from natural products with anticarcinogenic potential.

Methodology

A systematic literature search was carried out on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar databases to identify original articles on the biological activities of primary olive oil phenols. The search utilized keywords such as hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein, oleocanthal, oleacein, olive oil phenols, along with terms like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, osteoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiobesity, antimicrobial, metabolism, and bioavailability. The extensive literature gathered was then manually curated to ensure its relevance to the subject. This curation included both emerging insights and well-established findings. Additionally, literature dated prior to 2010 was included when deemed relevant to the topic.

Chemistry of hydroxytyrosol

Hydroxytyrosol is a colorless solid organic compound, chemically represented as (HO) 2 C 6 H 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH, and it belongs to the group of phenolic phytochemicals. It is commonly found in olive fruit and oils, often in the form of esters with the secoiridoid elenolic acid [ 23 , 24 ]. The hydroxytyrosol derivatives are obtained as by-products from olive trees and their leaves during the olive oil manufacturing process [ 25 ]. The synthesis of hydroxytyrosol occurs in single-step reaction from tyrosols. When the conversion of tyrosine into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) happens that could lead to the synthesis of hydroxytyrosol. Hydroxytyrosol is readily soluble in organic solvents, while it exhibits only slight solubility in water, typically around 10 mg/mL, at room temperature [ 26 ]. The partitioning coefficients of hydroxytyrosol in between oil and water phases were found to be 0.010 [ 27 ]. The diverse biological properties of hydroxytyrosol stem from its potent antioxidant and radical-scavenging attributes. Its effectiveness is also influenced by the presence of an ortho-dihydroxy conformation in the aromatic ring, which is akin to catechol [ 28 ]. Moreover, hydroxytyrosol has demonstrated the ability to enhance endothelial function, reduce oxidative stress, provide neuro- and cardio-protection, positively affect lipid and hemostatic profiles, and exhibit anti-inflammatory properties [ 29 ] (Fig.  1 ).

Structure of hydroxytyrosol

Ethnopharmacological applicability

Hydroxytyrosol is found in both olive leaves and fruits, which belong to the Oleaceae family. It serves as a significant component of olive leaf extract, olive mill wastewater, and virgin olive oil. Notably, it is regarded as having the highest in vitro antioxidant potential among all the polyphenols in olive oil [ 10 ]. It is stable in its free form and readily get penetrated into tissues [ 30 ]. In olive fruits or olive oil, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol are considered to be an important dietary phenolic component. They are well known for their scavenging attribute and either can be found in ester form of secoiridoid elenolic acid or in free form [ 27 , 31 ]. Both hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol are natural compounds known for their diverse pharmacological properties. They demonstrate a wide array of effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-genotoxic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-depressant, anticancer, neuroprotective, and anti-atherogenic properties, among others (Fig.  2 ). They also prevent keratinocytes apoptosis induced by radiation, mitochondrial dysfunction induced by acrylamide and acrolein-induced deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damaged, etc. [ 19 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Hydroxytyrosol can be obtained from fat’s main source in Mediterranean diet. The Mediterranean diet, originating in olive-growing regions in the Mediterranean Basin in the 1960s, emphasizes plant-based foods with a primary focus on various fats, predominantly sourced from olive oil. This dietary pattern leads to a significant consumption of mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated fats while minimizing the intake of saturated fats [ 37 ]. Hydroxytyrosol is the sole polyphenol in the market with an authorized health claim, approved by the European Food Safety Authority [ 37 , 38 ]. The Mediterranean diet primarily comprises fruits, vegetables, and olive oil as its main components. In Mediterranean nations, despite a relatively high fat intake, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease is significantly lower compared to countries like the USA, where fat consumption is also relatively high. The European Commission has established a scientific panel on dietetic products, nutrition, and allergies as a division under the jurisdiction of the European Food Safety Authority. This panel assesses hydroxytyrosol as a novel product, deeming it safe for the public while excluding children under the age of three and pregnant or nursing women. This assessment aligns with the standards set for novel food constituents, as outlined in Article 3(1) of Regulation (EC) 258/97. EFSA has evaluated hydroxytyrosol as safe for human consumption as a new food, establishing a daily limit for potential adverse effects at 50 mg/kg of body weight [ 39 ]. In the USA, a dosage of 5 mg of hydroxytyrosol per serving is considered safe for its inclusion in processed foods [ 40 ]. An accepted daily safe dosage for adults is 800 mg, and this compound contributes significantly to the health benefits associated with extra virgin olive oil [ 41 ]. Bioavailability studies indicate that hydroxytyrosol from olive oil is effectively absorbed after ingestion and demonstrates significant biological effects that are dependent on the dose [ 42 ]. Olives provide natural antioxidants that protect against oxidative stress, a factor linked to diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Ethnopharmacological properties of hydroxytyrosol

Absorption and metabolism studies

Preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that hydroxytyrosol is absorbed in the colon and small intestine, following a dose-dependent pattern [ 43 , 44 ]. Transport through intestinal epithelium occurs via passive bidirectional diffusion. The absorption of hydroxytyrosol depends upon the nature of the vehicle it is carried in. A study found that rats absorbed 99% of hydroxytyrosol in olive oil, compared to 75% in an aqueous solution [ 45 ]. Also, the rate of absorption varies depending on the type of animal. For example, rats absorb at a rate that is different from that of humans since rats lack a gallbladder [ 46 ]. Tissue distribution studies in rats, conducted after intravenous administration of radioactive hydroxytyrosol, showed a short half-life in the blood (1–2 min), with the majority accumulating in the kidneys just 5-min post-injection [ 47 ]. Further, hydroxytyrosol is also widely distributed in different organs including the liver, lungs, skeletal muscle, and heart (Fig.  3 ). It easily crosses the blood–brain barrier and enters the brain. Additionally, it can also be synthesized endogenously from dihydroxyphenylacetic acid by dihydroxyphenylacetic acid reductase, an enzyme present in the brain [ 48 ] . It undergoes initial metabolic processes in enterocytes and subsequently in the liver . These stages are vital as hydroxytyrosol undergoes various transformations and modifications, which are believed to contribute to its therapeutic properties [ 49 ]. Three metabolic pathways have been proposed for hydroxytyrosol: (1) Oxidation, which is carried by enzymes aldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase, rendering dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (2) Methylation, which is carried by the enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase, giving rise to dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, and (3) Methylation-Oxidation, which results to homovanillic acid [ 47 ]. Indeed, the primary metabolites of hydroxytyrosol encompass aldehydes, O-methylated forms, and acids, which are created through the oxidation of glucuronide, sulfates, aliphatic alcohol, as well as N-acetylcysteine and sulfated derivatives [ 44 ]. In rats, it takes around 5 h; in humans, it takes around 4 h for hydroxytyrosol and its metabolites to be discharged from the urine [ 43 ]. Similar to absorption, the elimination of hydroxytyrosol and its metabolites varies depending on the method of administration used for the compound. A study revealed that the elimination of hydroxytyrosol through urine is higher when it is administered as a natural component of olive oil compared to its external administration in low-fat yogurt or refined olive oil [ 46 ]. Absorption and urinary excretion of hydroxytyrosol and its metabolites differ between rats and humans, with both processes being lower in rats compared to humans. Therefore, these findings indicate that rats may not be a suitable model for studying hydroxytyrosol metabolism.

Absorption and disposition of hydroxytyrosol in humans

Pharmacokinetics of hydroxytyrosol

Pharmacokinetics primarily involves the kinetic study of a compound’s absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion in biofluids, tissues, and organs over a specific time period [ 50 ]. Understanding the pharmacokinetics of hydroxytyrosol is essential for optimizing its therapeutic potential and ensuring its safe and effective use. While there is limited research specifically focusing on the pharmacokinetics of hydroxytyrosol, some reports have shed light on its absorption and metabolism. When hydroxytyrosol is orally administered, whether with olive or an aqueous supplement, it is absorbed through the intestine and undergoes rapid metabolism involving both phase-I and phase-II metabolic reactions. Hydroxytyrosol metabolites were undetectable in fasting state plasma but quickly cleared during the postprandial phase and excreted in urine. The maximum concentration (Cmax) is reached within 30 min, and clearance occurs within 2–4 h [ 51 ]. In a preclinical study, hydroxytyrosol was found absent in the brains and cerebrospinal fluid of normal animals but crossed the blood–brain barrier in mice experiencing chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). This suggests that hydroxytyrosol’s beneficial effects primarily target the hippocampus, as it is distributed there due to BBB impairments in stressed mice after oral administration [ 52 ]. Metabolism of hydroxytyrosol primarily occurs in the liver. Studies using in vitro models have identified several metabolic pathways for hydroxytyrosol including glucuronidation and sulfation. These conjugation reactions facilitate the excretion of hydroxytyrosol from the body. The unchanged hydroxytyrosol (free form) is almost undetectable in urine and plasma samples by oral route than intraperitoneal. Food matrix significantly affects the absorption and metabolism of hydroxytyrosol, with extra virgin olive oil recognized as the most effective matrix for improving its bioavailability [ 51 ]. Hydroxytyrosol primarily metabolizes into HVA, DOPAC, and HT-3-S, and these metabolites can be detected in plasma samples from food supplements shortly after ingestion. Among these, DOPAC and HVA reach their peak plasma concentrations approximately 30 min after ingestion. Notably, DOPAC exhibits lower concentrations and faster elimination compared to HVA, largely due to its enzymatic conversion into HVA through the action of catechol methyltransferase enzyme [ 41 , 53 ]. The pharmacokinetics of hydroxytyrosol are subject to influence by several factors, including the administered dose, co-administration with food, and individual variations in metabolism. Finding from the literature regarding pharmacokinetics concluded that hydroxytyrosol showed rapid absorption, hepatic metabolism, and elimination through conjugation reactions. Further research is required to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the complete pharmacokinetic profile of hydroxytyrosol, with a particular focus on its distribution and excretion pathways. Nonetheless, the existing research provides valuable insights into the absorption and metabolism of hydroxytyrosol, which contribute to its potential therapeutic applications.

Anticancer cellular targets

Hydroxytyrosol demonstrates a multifaceted approach in targeting cellular components relevant to cancer development and progression. Research has demonstrated hydroxytyrosol’s ability to interact with multiple critical molecular targets, making it a good candidate for cancer therapy [ 54 , 55 , 56 ].

Hydroxytyrosol notably focuses on regulating oxidative stress within cells. Hydroxytyrosol, as a strong antioxidant, counters reactive oxygen species (ROS) known to stimulate cancer growth and harm cellular components. By mitigating oxidative stress, hydroxytyrosol helps maintain cellular homeostasis and reduces the risk of cancer initiation (Fig.  4 ) [ 57 ].

Hydroxytyrosol targeting oxidative stress, inflammation, PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK pathways in cancer cells

Hydroxytyrosol also plays a crucial role in modulating inflammatory pathways. Chronic inflammation significantly contributes to the promotion of cancer development and metastasis [ 58 ]. Hydroxytyrosol’s anti-inflammatory properties help suppress pro-inflammatory signaling molecules, thereby curbing cancer-promoting processes and reducing the tumor microenvironment’s pro-tumorigenic effects [ 59 , 60 , 61 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has also shown promise in regulating cell cycle progression. It can induce cell cycle arrest, halting uncontrolled cell proliferation, a hallmark of cancer cells. Its impact on the cell cycle inhibits cancer cell growth and promotes their elimination through apoptosis [ 22 , 59 , 60 , 62 ]. Furthermore, hydroxytyrosol has been found to target specific signaling pathways crucial for cancer survival and invasion. It can modulate various kinases, such as PI3K/AKT and MAPK (Fig.  4 ), which play key roles in cancer cell survival and metastasis [ 62 , 63 ]. By interfering with these pathways, hydroxytyrosol hinders cancer cell growth and motility. In summary, the diverse capabilities of hydroxytyrosol in targeting various cellular components relevant to cancer progression highlight its potential as a promising anticancer agent. Its ability to regulate oxidative stress, inflammation, cell cycle progression, and signaling pathways makes it an intriguing candidate for further research and potential incorporation into cancer treatment strategies.

Zrelli et al. reported that hydroxytyrosol (HT) showed anticancer potential and induced apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) via enhanced nitric oxide production, and reduced Akt phosphorylation levels [ 64 ]. Zubair et al., 2017 exhibited a study that evaluated the anticancer potential of hydroxytyrosol against prostate cancer (LNCaP and C4-2) cells, whereas non-toxic effects against normal cells. The treatment of hydroxytyrosol in prostate cancer significantly induced apoptosis, and that can also inhibit androgen receptor expression [ 22 ]. Calahora et al. (2020) found that hydroxytyrosol, a primary bioactive compound in olive oil, significantly reduces the growth of the breast cancer cell line MCF-7. This effect is likely attained by modulating HIF-1α protein expression, potentially by reducing oxidative stress and inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway (Fig.  4 ) [ 65 ]. Costantini et al., 2020, reported that hydroxytyrosol primary component of olive oil showed anticancer potential toward human melanoma cell (A375, HT-144 and M74) lines through upregulation of ROS level and induction of apoptosis via increases p53 and γH2AX expression decreases AKT expression [ 66 ].

Jadid et al. (2021) explored the use of nano-encapsulated hydroxytyrosol and curcumin, both individually and in combination, and found that these formulations significantly reduced the proliferation of the pancreatic cancer cell line PANC-1. This effect was achieved by modulating the expression levels of key proteins including BCL-2, BAX, and Cas-9 [ 67 ]. Antonio et al., 2021 found that hydroxytyrosol showed cytotoxic potential against PC-3 and 22Rv1 treated cells but less cytotoxicity toward non-cancerous cells (RWPE-1 cells). Hydrotyrosol exhibited its anticancer potential toward these cell lines by modulating the phospho-AKT/AKT expression levels [ 68 ]. In 2022, Aghaei and colleagues discovered that hydroxytyrosol induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7) by upregulating pro-apoptotic genes (BAX and CASP3) and downregulating the anti-apoptotic BCL2 gene [ 69 ].

Apoptosis and cell cycle arrest

Apoptosis, essential for tissue balance, eliminates damaged cells. Dysregulation in cancer underscores its significance. Inducing apoptosis is a promising cancer therapy approach [ 70 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has been shown to activate caspases which are key enzymes involved in the apoptotic process. Caspase activation cleaves targets, instigating cancer cell apoptosis [ 71 ]. It modulates Bcl-2 proteins, central to apoptosis control. Hydroxytyrosol reduces the levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 while increasing the expression of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, thereby promoting apoptosis in cancer cells [ 72 ]. Hydroxytyrosol disrupts cancer cell mitochondrial function, releasing pro-apoptotic factors like cytochrome C, activating c-Jun and c-Fos pathways, ultimately inducing apoptosis [ 73 ]. Hydroxytyrosol enhances apoptosis in breast cancer cells by increasing caspase-3 activity, inducing DNA fragmentation, and promoting mitochondrial membrane depolarization. Additionally, it upregulates the pro-apoptotic Bax and downregulates the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, resulting in the release of cytochrome C and activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway [ 74 ]. In prostate cancer, hydroxytyrosol induces apoptosis through various mechanisms. It activates caspase-3 and caspase-9, triggers PARP cleavage, inhibits Akt/STAT3 phosphorylation, and retains NF-kB in the cytoplasm of prostate cancer cells [ 22 ]. Furthermore, hydroxytyrosol treatment activates critical signaling pathways, including MAPK, Akt, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, and TGF-β, which are instrumental in inducing apoptosis. [ 75 , 76 ]. In colon cancer, hydroxytyrosol reduces cell viability and enhances caspase-3 activity, promoting apoptotic cell death [ 71 , 77 ]. Additionally, hydroxytyrosol treatment upregulated pro-apoptotic proteins like p53 and Bax, while downregulating anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2 [ 49 , 63 ]. These findings define that hydroxytyrosol induces apoptosis in colon cancer cells by regulating apoptotic protein expression. Hydroxytyrosol’s apoptotic effects have also been observed in other cancer types, such as liver cancer and leukemia. Hydroxytyrosol induces apoptosis in liver cancer cells via the mitochondrial pathway, with increased Bax expression and reduced Bcl-2 levels [ 78 ]. Hydroxytyrosol treatment induced apoptosis in leukemia cells by activating caspase-3 and caspase-8 while simultaneously inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway [ 63 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has been documented to provoke G1 phase arrest in cancer cells, a state often linked with the reduction in levels of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and CDK6, which play pivotal roles in regulating the G1-S transition [ 71 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has been shown to induce G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in cancer cells by downregulating cyclin B1 and CDK1, which are essential for the G2-M transition [ 61 ]. Numerous studies have delved into the cell cycle arrest mechanisms induced by hydroxytyrosol in various cancer types. A fundamental anticancer mechanism of hydroxytyrosol centers around cell cycle regulation, particularly in breast cancer. This is achieved by inducing G1 phase cell cycle arrest, involving the increase in cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, like p21 and p27, and the reduction in cyclins D1 and E. These actions collectively impede cell cycle progression, resulting in cell cycle arrest [ 79 ]. In colon cancer cells, hydroxytyrosol can induce G2/M phase cell cycle arrest by inhibiting cyclin-dependent kinases, specifically CDK1, and promoting the degradation of cyclin B1, both of which play crucial roles in regulating the G2/M transition [ 71 ]. Hydroxytyrosol induces G1 phase cell cycle arrest in prostate cancer cells through the modulation of key cell cycle regulators, including cyclin D1 and p21 [ 22 , 80 ].

Anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic action

Angiogenesis, essential in numerous cancers, involves the formation of new blood vessels and plays a significant role in tumor growth and metastasis. Blocking angiogenesis can impede tumor progression by restricting the blood supply to tumors [ 81 ]. Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from existing ones, plays a vital role in embryogenesis, wound healing, and tumor growth. This process is controlled by a delicate balance between pro-angiogenic factors (vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, and platelet-derived growth factor) and anti-angiogenic factors (Thrombospondin and Angiostatin). Angiogenesis, primarily regulated by VEGF and its receptor VEGFR-2, is pivotal in various diseases, including cancer, diabetic retinopathy, rheumatoid arthritis, and cardiovascular disorders. Especially in case of cancer, tumors require a blood supply to grow beyond a certain size, and they can induce angiogenesis to recruit new blood vessels and provide nutrients for their survival and expansion which is explained by a number of studies [ 42 , 82 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has been shown to possess the capability to suppress the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a crucial regulator of angiogenesis. By inhibiting VEGF expression, hydroxytyrosol can interfere with the development of new blood vessels, which are vital for tumor growth and metastasis [ 15 ]. Moreover, research has demonstrated that hydroxytyrosol can inhibit the proliferation of endothelial cells, a pivotal factor in the formation of new blood vessels. This anti-proliferative effect can further contribute to the suppression of angiogenesis [ 19 ]. According to studies by Li & Kroetz, (2018); Touyz et al., (2018) and Wu et al., (2008), Blocking VEGF receptor-2 binding with drugs like bevacizumab, sorafenib, and sunitinib inhibits angiogenesis. Yet, these drugs may cause side effects, such as hypertension [ 83 , 84 , 85 ]. Several natural products (Table  1 ) like epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), procyanidin oligomers, resveratrol, quercetin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, urolithins, and ellagitannin show anti-angiogenic and anti-VEGF effect without causing hypertension like side effects. Besides these compounds, hydroxytyrosol (in fermented beverages & Olive oil) and Indole acetic acids (in wine) show VEGFR-2 inhibitory effect without causing adverse hypertensive effects, proving their advantage over synthetic drugs. Fortes et al. (2012) found that hydroxytyrosol inhibits endothelial cell apoptosis, alters cell cycle distribution, and impedes cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation into “capillary-like” tubes. Additionally, it inhibits MMP-9, cyclooxygenase 2, and VEGFR-2 phosphorylation, demonstrating its anti-angiogenic properties [ 86 ]. In a study by Lamy et al. (2014), it was noted that hydroxytyrosol inhibits angiogenesis by targeting specific phosphorylation sites (Tyr951, Tyr1059, Tyr1175, and Tyr1214) on vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFR-2), leading to the inhibition of endothelial cell (EC) signaling and subsequent EC proliferation inhibition. All these studies suggested the hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives have potential anti-angiogenic properties and can be used in the prevention and therapy of cancer (Fig.  4 ) (Bernini et al., 2015). In breast cancer, hydroxytyrosol inhibits angiogenesis by reducing VEGF receptor expression and blocking the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway [ 65 ]. In an in vitro study on colorectal cancer, hydroxytyrosol inhibited angiogenesis by reducing VEGF expression, suppressing matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity, which is involved in angiogenesis and tumor invasion, and inhibiting the activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway [ 29 , 87 ]. Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells disseminate from the primary tumor to distant organs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. When cancer cells metastasize, they invade nearby tissues and enter the circulatory or lymphatic systems, allowing them to travel to distant organs or tissues. Metastasis, a fundamental characteristic of malignant tumors and a primary contributor to cancer-related mortality, entails the dissemination of cancer cells to various organs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Hydroxytyrosol has been demonstrated to inhibit MMPs, enzymes crucial for the degradation of the extracellular matrix, potentially impeding metastatic processes [ 88 ]. Hydroxytyrosol can hinder the invasion and metastasis of cancer cells by inhibiting matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). [ 80 , 89 ]. Hydroxytyrosol has been found to inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a fundamental stage in cancer metastasis. By preventing cancer cells from acquiring a more invasive and migratory phenotype through EMT, hydroxytyrosol can hinder metastatic spread [ 90 ]. Aghaei et al. in 2022, the anti-proliferative effects of hydroxytyrosol were demonstrated on both MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cancer cells, along with an increase in apoptotic activity. It also downregulates the anti-apoptotic ( BCL2 ) gene and upregulates the pro-apoptotic ( BAX and CASP3 ) genes. In a study by León-González et al. (2021) on prostate cancer cell lines (RWPE-1, LNCaP, 22Rv1, and PC-3), hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives demonstrated anti-proliferative effects. This included reduced cell migration in RWPE-1 and PC-3, as well as decreased prostatosphere size and colony formation in 22Rv1. In colorectal cancer cells, Hormozi et al. (2020) demonstrated that hydroxytyrosol induces apoptosis by upregulating the CASP3 gene expression and growing the BAX:BCL2 ratio. Furthermore, hydroxytyrosol enhances antioxidant enzyme activity and reduces LS180 cell proliferation by modifying the antioxidant-defense system in cancer cells. Méndez-Líter et al. (2019) documented the reduction in viability in the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 due to the impact of hydroxytyrosol. Hydroxytyrosol significantly reduced EGFR expression, leading to decreased cell proliferation in human colon cancer cells, and it also reduced tumor growth, along with EGFR expression levels, in HT-29 xenografts (Terzuoli et al., 2016). Hydroxytyrosol inhibits the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells by modulating crucial metastasis-related pathways, such as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activation. The effects of hydroxytyrosol observed in both in vitro and in vivo studies underscore its potential as a promising anti-metastatic agent for breast cancer [ 89 , 91 , 92 ]. Li et al. 2014, the proliferation of human gallbladder cancer cell lines and human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) was inhibited by hydroxytyrosol. Hydroxytyrosol disrupts (E2)-induced molecular mechanisms, leading to the inhibition of breast cancer cell proliferation (Fu et al., 2010). Some crucial proteins that are involved in the control of these processes were altered in expression by hydroxytyrosol. Additionally, hydroxytyrosol leads to reduced DNA synthesis, suppresses the cell cycle, lowers the levels of CDK-6, and increases cyclin D3 expression. All these factors induce apoptosis in HL 60 cells [ 93 ]. These studies collectively offer a comprehensive summary outlining the anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic activities of hydroxytyrosol (Fig.  5 ).

Major signaling pathways targeted by hydroxytyrosol in angiogenesis and metastasis processes

Anti-inflammatory action

Fernández-Prior et al., 2021 found that the anti-inflammatory potential of hydroxytyrosol was investigated using the THP-1 cell line. Their analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, together with TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, showed the reduction in the gene expression of these cytokines. This indicates the potential of hydroxytyrosol in treating diseases with inflammatory origins. Downregulation of cytokines (IL1, TNF, Cox2 and iNOs) expression was observed to be reduced as a result of hydroxytyrosol treatment and mice on olive oil diet show a significant reduction in cox2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) and its antioxidant activity exhibits the anti-inflammatory activity of hydroxytyrosol [ 59 , 94 , 95 ]. NF-κB, a crucial factor in inflammation, activates the transcription of various cytokine genes. Consequently, inhibiting NF-κB has been acknowledged as a strategy to control inflammatory cytokine. Hydroxytyrosol has been shown to inhibit the activation of both p53 and NF-κB in cells [ 94 , 96 ]. Yonezawa et al. (2018, 2019) documented that hydroxytyrosol inhibits the lipopolysaccharide-mediated stimulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and interleukin-1 expression, leading to reduction in nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 production [ 97 , 98 ]. This underscores the anti-inflammatory activity of hydroxytyrosol. In the combination of hydroxytyrosol with pectin/alginate was found effective against TNBS-induced colitis, providing further evidence of the anti-inflammatory properties of hydroxytyrosol [ 99 ].

Hydroxytyrosol exhibited a dose-dependent reduction in SA-β-galactosidase activity in UVA-exposed human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). Furthermore, it dose-dependently decreased the elevated expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 induced by UVA exposure. Jeon & Choi (2018) noted that hydroxytyrosol reduced SA-β-galactosidase activity and inhibited the MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression. Moreover, hydroxytyrosol reduced the expression of genes associated with IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 in UVA-exposed human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) [ 100 ]. Fuccelli et al. (2018) illustrated that hydroxytyrosol treatment effectively reduced TNF-α production in plasma following intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), indicating its anti-inflammatory potential [ 61 ]. FF-HT exhibited robust anti-inflammatory effects in vivo, resulting in a 16% reduction in plasma TNF levels and a 25% reduction in CRP levels when compared to the model group [ 101 ]. In TNF-activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (hECs), Echeverría et al. (2017) found that hydroxytyrosol reduced the protein levels of phosphorylated inhibitor of κBα kinase (IKKαβ), inhibitor of κBα (IκBα), and p65, essential components of the NF-κB pathway. The suppression of NF-κB signaling highlights the involvement of NF-κB inactivation in the anti-inflammatory action of hydroxytyrosol [ 102 ]. Tutino et al. (2012) investigated the mechanisms through which hydroxytyrosol (HT) prevents oxidative stress and inflammation in human hepatoma cells while also inhibiting cancer cell proliferation [ 103 ]. Richard et al. (2011) reported that hydroxytyrosol reduced the secretion of cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α) and chemokines (CXCL10/IP-10, CCL2/MCP-1), highlighting its anti-inflammatory action [ 104 ]. In vitro, hydroxytyrosol (HTyr) inhibits pro-tumorigenic inflammatory reactions that are brought on by the activation of monocytes and macrophages (in vitro). For example, the anti-inflammatory effectiveness of hydroxytyrosol (HTyr) may be notably attributed to its ability to suppress the NF-κB signaling pathways [ 105 ]. Prolonged oxidative stress and inflammation can lead to the onset of autoimmune and chronic diseases. Several of the studies mentioned above have highlighted hydroxytyrosol’s potential in inhibiting diseases like type II diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease through interactions with their respective receptors [ 106 , 107 ].

Hydroxytyrosol antibacterial activity

Hydroxytyrosol (C 8 H 10 O 3 ) is reported as a phenolic phytochemical compound isolated from olive ( Olea europaea ) leaves and oils. Hydroxytyrosol (HT) from Olea europaea exhibits antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria among the isolated phenolic compounds [ 112 ]. In literature, many of the bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Salmonella Typhimurium , Listeria monocytogenes , Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Streptococcus pneumonia , Campylobacter spp. and Acinetobacter baumannii are responsible for causing different types of infections in human population [ 113 ]. Since ages, medicinal plants are used for the isolation of phytochemical compounds showing profound activities against pathogenic bacteria. Currently, HT is a desirable molecule among all the phenolic components of olives having profound applications in medical, nutraceutical, pharmaceuticals and food industries [ 114 ]. Numerous studies in the literature have explored the antimicrobial and antibacterial potential of hydroxytyrosol (HT) from olive leaves, as summarized in Table  2 . These studies offer valuable insights into HT’s potential as a natural antimicrobial agent. In addition to this, phenolic extracts of olive leaves showed potent activity against infections related to respiratory and gastro-intestinal tract [ 115 ].

HT exhibits potent antibacterial activity against a range of bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Shigella sonnei, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, and Yersinia sp [ 116 , 117 ]. In 2019, Nazzaro et al. reported significant bacterial growth inhibition at very low concentrations in the polyphenolic extract obtained from three Olea europaea varieties: Ruvea, Ravece, and Ogliara [ 118 ]. Similarly, Rocha-Pimienta et al., (2020) reported significant antimicrobial activity of HT against Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive Listeria innocua [ 115 ]. Though, the action mechanism of HT and other phenolic compound is yet now clear but, Martillanes et al. [ 119 ] proposed that the antibacterial effects of phenolic compounds might be due to genetic material modifications, interactions with cell membranes, and the disruption of enzymatic systems. Silvan et al. [ 120 ] reported antibacterial activity in leaf extracts E1 and E2 of Olea europaea against Helicobacter pylori causing chronic gastritis in human population. Characterization of extracts E1 and E2 via HPLC-PAD-MS revealed that E1 is primarily composed of hydroxytyrosol (HT) and its glucosides, while E2 contains hydrophilic compounds like oleuropein (OLE).

In Silvan et al. [ 121 ] reported significant antibacterial activity in Olea europaea leaf extract E1, which comprises hydroxytyrosol and hydroxytyrosol glucosides. These compounds exhibited activity against antibiotic-resistant strains of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli . Yuan et al. [ 122 ] reported the antibacterial activity of HT, OL, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and caffeic acid against Klebsiella pneumoniae , indicating its possible use as an important pharmaceutical compound. Pannucci et al. [ 123 ] reported antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of HT enriched extract from oil mill wastewater against two olive tree pathogens viz . Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. Savastanoi . The chemical characterization of the extract identified hydroxytyrosol as the main component, demonstrating significant antimicrobial activity. Shan et al. [ 124 ] found that hydroxytyrosol exhibits anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activity against pulmonary injury induced by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) in chickens. This effect is achieved by reducing damage and inhibiting the activation of the NF-κB/NLRP3/IL-1β signaling pathway.

Hence, hydroxytyrosol can be seen as an important pharmacological compound having antibacterial activity against an array of different human pathogens.

In addition, it possesses antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-thrombotic, and anticancer properties [ 125 ]. The exact antibacterial mechanism of hydroxytyrosol is not fully understood, but some studies in the literature propose that HT may induce protein denaturation, alter cell membrane permeability, or downregulate genes responsible for cell proliferation [ 126 , 127 ]. Table 2 provides information on the target organisms and mechanisms of action of hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives.

Synergistic action

The therapeutically active and anticancer activities of hydroxytyrosol have been linked to its concentrations. Hydroxytyrosol has been reported to exhibit diverse therapeutic activities in isolation, but its primary health-promoting properties often result from synergistic effects when combined with other compounds. It is a component found in virgin olive oil and has previously shown a beneficial role in breast epithelial cell cancer. However, it does not exhibit significant anticancer properties in highly invasive stages of breast cancer cells. [ 132 , 133 ]. Treatment of highly metastatic human breast tumor cells with a combination of hydroxytyrosol and squalene inhibits cell proliferation, promotes apoptosis, and induces DNA damage in breast cancer cells [ 14 ]. Based on the studies mentioned above, there is a belief that a synergistic action may occur between hydroxytyrosol and other phenolic molecules found in olive oil or natural compounds like tyrosol, lycopene, oleuropein, and tea polyphenols. These interactions between various compounds could contribute to the observed therapeutic effects and health benefits associated with olive oil consumption [ 134 ]. Tyrosol is a common constituent of olive oil present as conjugated or free forms and showed several pharmacological functions. Furthermore, a synergistic interaction was observed when tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol were combined to inhibit tumor proliferation and reduce EGFR expression in HT-29 tumor cells. This suggests that the combined action of these compounds may have a more pronounced effect on cancer cell behavior than when used individually. This discovery highlights an intriguing mechanism of action for hydroxytyrosol and indicates that combining it with chemotherapy could be a promising approach for treating colon and rectal cancer [ 15 ]. Toteda and colleagues reported a synergistic effect of hydroxytyrosol in combination with doxorubicin for the treatment of leukemic K562 cells. The combination of hydroxytyrosol and doxorubicin results in a substantial reduction in cell viability, primarily through an increase in the apoptosis process and the induction of double-strand DNA breaks in K562 leukemia cells which suggests a potential synergistic effect of these compounds in combating leukemia [ 135 ]. Furthermore, a study has indicated that hydroxytyrosol demonstrates synergistic antioxidant activity when combined with other phenolic compounds like quercetin and resveratrol which suggests that the collective use of these antioxidants may enhance their effectiveness in combating oxidative stress and promoting overall health [ 136 ].

Role of nanotechnology

Nanotechnology holds significant promise in advancing cancer treatment, representing a cutting-edge frontier at the intersection of various disciplines. In vitro diagnosis and drug administration have recently attracted a lot of attention in the field of nanotechnology [ 137 ]. This technology is being created to win the battle against cancer. Drug resistance can now be reversed by active or passive mechanisms owing to studies focusing on nano-based medications [ 138 ]. Nanotechnology-based medications have effectively reduced side effects, enhanced treatment efficacy, and mitigated drug resistance. A wide range of nanoparticles (NPs) has been developed and extensively researched, including polymer-based nanoparticles, nanovesicles, and metal nanoparticles which exhibited potential in overcoming cancer’s resistance to chemotherapy [ 139 , 140 ]. Targeted therapy, photothermal therapy, nanomaterial-based chemotherapy, and sonodynamic therapy are now employed to treat cancer [ 141 , 142 ]. Nanomedicine involves the use of nanoparticles and nanoscale materials for medical purposes, such as drug delivery, diagnostic imaging, and targeted therapy. When hydroxytyrosol is incorporated into nanomedicine formulations, it can enhance the therapeutic effects and improve the bioavailability of the compound.

Mechanism of nanoparticle in chemotherapy

It includes active as well as passive targeting. Nanoparticles achieve active targeting via ligand-receptor interactions, employing molecules such as siRNAs, proteins, vitamins, amino acids, monoclonal antibodies, and peptides on the surfaces of cancer cells. Nanoparticles’ ligand-mediated targets in cancer cells contribute to their ability to discriminate between tumor cells and healthy ones [ 143 ]. As a result of this interaction, NPs can release the medicine at the target spot by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Passive targeting leverages the increased permeability and retention (EPR) effect, causing nanoparticles (NPs) to accumulate around cancer cells due to their restricted lymphatic circulation. This facilitates the delivery of medication to the intended site using nanocarriers. Since NPs are made of small particles, they are more permeable to cells than larger particles like conventional medications, which the immune system is likely to remove from the cell. A permeability advantage allows NPs to produce an EPR effect [ 144 ].

Many studies focus on the preparation and characterization of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) NPs loaded with hydroxytyrosol. Researchers investigated the stability and bioactivities of the hydroxytyrosol-loaded nanoparticles as follows.

Guan et al. [ 145 ] found that mPEG-PLGA co-loaded with syringopicroside and HT exhibited sustained release of drug, prominent liver distribution, and provided protection against hepatic injury in Sprague–Dawley rats. Jadid et al. [ 67 ] demonstrated that nano-encapsulated hydroxytyrosol (HT) and curcumin (Cur) within poly lactide-co-glycolide-co-polyacrylic acid (PLGA-co-PAA), individually and in combination (HT-Cur), exhibited substantial anti-proliferative, anti-migratory, and apoptosis-inducing effects on pancreatic cancer (PCNA-1) cells. These effects were achieved by modulating migration-related genes (MMP2 and MMP9) and apoptosis-related genes (BAX and Caspase-9).

Saini et al. [ 146 ] discovered that nano-capsulated hydroxytyrosol reduced colorectal cancer (HT-29) cell growth by modifying the expression of CDKN1A, CDKN1B, and CCND1 genes. Safi et al. [ 147 ] discovered that the employment of PLGA-co-PAA nano-encapsulated hydroxytyrosol in breast cancer (MCF-7) cells resulted in anti-proliferative effects. This was achieved by arresting the cell cycle through the upregulation of P21 and P27 expression, while concurrently downregulating Cyclin D1 expression. Zygouri et al. [ 148 ] utilized carbon nanotubes as biocompatible carriers for hydroxytyrosol. Their study revealed cytotoxic effects on NIH/3T3 and Tg/Tg cell lines, leading to cell cycle arrest and the generation of ROS.

Toxicological studies

To study the effect of hydroxytyrosol Fernández-Prior et al. [ 149 ] in THP-1 derived monocytes, treatment of different concentrations (10–100 ppm) were given. A very high cellular viability (100%) was recorded elucidating HT had no negative effects on the integrity of the cells in this cellular model. HT also showed high viability in living human cells without any inhibition effect. Hence, hydroxytyrosol (HT) has potential applications in the treatment of various diseases. Haloui et al. [ 12 ] reported no toxicity associated symptoms like convulsion, diarrhea, locomotor ataxia and mortality after doses (different concentrations) of hydroxytyrosol given to mice concluded that it does not cause any toxicological effect. D’Angelo et al. [ 47 ] found that orally administered hydroxytyrosol in rats did not result in significant adverse effects, after assessing its molecular pharmacokinetics and toxicity. While studying the anti-inflammatory effect of dietary hydroxytyrosol supplement, Voltes et al. [ 110 ] did not notice any symptoms of toxic effect of the hydroxytyrosol. Non-toxic and chemopreventive effects of hydroxytyrosol (HT) have been documented in various healthy and normal cell cultures [ 150 ]. There were not any signs of toxicity such as grip strength, locomotory activity, food consumption, or loss of body weight, observed in treated rats [ 151 ].

Limitations and challenges of hydroxytyrosol as an anticancer agent

Much of the evidence supporting the anticancer properties of hydroxytyrosol comes from in vitro and animal studies. While these findings are encouraging, the translation to clinical applications in humans which is not straightforward. More clinical trials are needed to establish the safety and efficacy of hydroxytyrosol in cancer prevention or treatment. Moreover, the variability in the composition of natural sources of hydroxytyrosol, such as olive oil, can make it challenging to achieve standardized doses. Standardization is crucial for ensuring consistent and reproducible results in both research and potential clinical applications. The potential synergistic or antagonistic effects of these compounds with hydroxytyrosol need further investigation. The complexity of natural products makes it challenging to isolate the specific contribution of hydroxytyrosol alone. The precise molecular mechanisms by which hydroxytyrosol exerts its anticancer effects are not fully understood. More research is needed to elucidate the signaling pathways and targets involved. Future studies and clinical trials will help address these issues and provide a clearer understanding of its potential therapeutic role.

Strengths and limitations of the study

Hydroxytyrosol as an anticancer agent exhibits several strengths in elucidating its potential therapeutic benefits. It effectively synthesizes existing research, highlighting hydroxytyrosol’s promising anticancer properties, such as its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, along with its ability to induce apoptosis and inhibit tumor cell proliferation. Moreover, the review likely discusses the mechanisms underlying hydroxytyrosol’s action, shedding light on its molecular targets and signaling pathways involved in cancer inhibition. However, this review study might encounter limitations stemming from the heterogeneity of research methodologies, dosages, and cancer types studied, which could affect the generalizability of findings. Additionally, the scarcity of human clinical trials and long-term studies could impede the translation of hydroxytyrosol’s potential into clinical practice, highlighting the need for further investigation to validate its efficacy and safety profile. Nonetheless, despite these challenges, the review provides valuable insights into hydroxytyrosol’s anticancer properties, serving as a foundation for future research and clinical trials in this promising field.

Conclusions

The review underscores hydroxytyrosol as an exciting and innovative frontier in cancer research, as recent findings unveil its robust anticancer effects and elucidate the associated molecular mechanisms. Hydroxytyrosol has demonstrated its ability to impede cancer cell proliferation, trigger apoptosis, and suppress metastasis, rendering it a compelling candidate for cancer therapy. Furthermore, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties have proven crucial in mitigating oxidative stress and fostering a less pro-tumorigenic tumor microenvironment. The review emphasizes the importance of recent discoveries in unveiling hydroxytyrosol’s unique mechanisms of action, which are critical for its potential integration into personalized cancer treatment approaches. By targeting various cellular components crucial to cancer development, hydroxytyrosol shows potential in augmenting the effectiveness of current cancer treatments and overcoming drug resistance. Future research should focus on further elucidating the precise molecular interactions and signaling pathways involved in hydroxytyrosol’s anticancer effects, opening up avenues for developing targeted therapies and innovative treatment combinations. Exploring its potential in different cancer types and addressing potential drug interactions are crucial considerations for its successful translation to clinical applications.

Availability of data and material

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the published article.

Abbreviations

Adenosine 5’-triphosphate

Bcl-2-associated X protein

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 1A

Maximum concentration

Cyclooxygenase 2

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Endothelial cell

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate

Human dermal fibroblasts

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array Detection and Mass Spectrometry

• Hydroxytyrosol

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Interleukins

Inducible nitric oxide synthase

Lipopolysaccharide

Mycoplasma gallisepticum

Matrix metalloproteinase

Nuclear Factor-Kappa B

Nanoparticles

Peptidyl-prolyl cis–trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 1

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)

Polylactide-co-glycolide-co-polyacrylic acid

Part per million

Reactive oxygen species

Tamm-Horsfall Protein 1

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Conceptualization, investigation, data curation, writing, and original draft preparation were done by AK, BS, KP, PB, PB, PYB, MD, SD, SJ, PK, and RD. Data curation and figure preparation were done by AK,KP, and BS. Writing review, editing, and supervision were done by AK, BS, PK, and MD. The authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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Kumar, A., Singh, B., Paul, K. et al. Hydroxytyrosol in cancer research: recent and historical insights on discoveries and mechanisms of action. Futur J Pharm Sci 10 , 129 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-024-00700-7

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The evolution of tax strategies in multinational companies: a historical perspective

• Original Article
• Published: 25 September 2024

Cite this article

• Nita Andriyani Budiman 1 ,
• Bandi Bandi 2 ,
• Ari Kuncara Widagdo 2 &
• Eko Arief Sudaryono 2  

Increasing globalization and complexity of the tax environment demands in-depth research into tax coverage, tax risks and tax avoidance in multinational companies. This research explains the complex dynamics between these variables with a focus on multinational companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange during 2009–2022. A sample of 714 observations was used to explore the relationship between tax disclosure, tax risk and tax avoidance. Statistical analysis shows that tax disclosure has a negative effect on tax avoidance. This shows that the more transparent a company is in disclosing its tax information, the less the company is involved in tax avoidance. On the other hand, tax risk has a positive effect on tax avoidance, meaning that when a company faces higher tax risk, the company tends to increase its tax avoidance efforts. In particular, this study reveals that tax disclosure also plays a moderating role, weakening the positive influence of tax risk on tax avoidance. Although tax risks can encourage companies to avoid taxes, the level of tax dispersion can reduce this positive impact. The practical relevance of this research provides valuable guidance for tax practitioners, regulators and decision makers in developing more effective tax policies. The results of this research highlight the importance of transparency in reducing tax avoidance practices, while providing insight into how tax risk and tax spread can be managed more efficiently. The academic contribution of this research lies in the development of multinational company taxation literature. By providing a deeper understanding of the relationships between variables, this research provides a foundation for further research in understanding the dynamics of global taxation. In conclusion, this research not only reflects its practical urgency, but also enriches the understanding of multinational corporate taxation in a global context.

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Nita Andriyani Budiman

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Appendix 1: Tax disclosure indicators

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Budiman, N.A., Bandi, B., Widagdo, A.K. et al. The evolution of tax strategies in multinational companies: a historical perspective. Int J Discl Gov (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41310-024-00265-0

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Received : 09 August 2024

Accepted : 09 September 2024

Published : 25 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41310-024-00265-0

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