legal literacy essay

Legal Literacy in Education: An Ideal Time to Increase Research, Advocacy, and Action

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Legal Literacy: A Tool for Empowerment

Social Action Published by Social Action Trust, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi, 2008

14 Pages Posted: 31 May 2017

Shalu Nigam

Independent

Date Written: April 1, 2008

Law is a double-edged instrument that may be used to enhance people’s access to justice as also to sanction regressionary trends or to legitimise practices that marginalise a set of people within a democratic set up . The beneficial aspects of law lie in the fact that it provides a platform to the marginalised people in society to raise their concerns. People-centered legal system empowers the marginalized in a manner to use the justice delivery mechanism effectively and efficiently in order to establish the rule of law and in long run may acts to establish people’s faith in law and governance. However, to utilize law as an instrument to social transformation it is essential to disseminate basic knowledge about the concepts and procedures of law. Legal literacy is a tool to empowerment that helps to demystify law besides enabling the process of law reform as well as social change. This paper focuses on the legal literacy efforts being carried out to empower people to participate in the process of law making, its implementation and looks at the significance of the role of law and legal literacy in bringing out social transformation. It explores the author’s own engagement with the law as an advocate, as an activist and as a trainer and delves on her personal experiences with various sets of people ranging from bureaucrats to social workers working at the grassroot level to illiterate women and their perception of law as well as legal system.

Keywords: Law, Legal Literacy, India, Social Action, Activism, Access to Justice, State, Common People, Civil Society

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The “right paper”: developing legal literacy in a legal self-help clinic.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Legal self-help is the fastest-growing segment of legal services in the United States, and a significant addition to the repertoire of programs aimed at opening up access to justice in the civil legal system. Few studies, however, have examined how such services work in practice. Through ethnographic research and analysis of meetings between unrepresented litigants and attorneys offering advice in a legal self-help clinic, this article expands the empirical investigation of access to justice to consider what legal self-help looks like in actual practice. In this article, I follow the concept of the “right paper” to analyze the process through which legal self-help litigants develop legal literacy, including the role of lawyers in helping them to do so. The article concludes by discussing what such practices reveal about recent efforts to open up access to justice and also about the dynamics through which people come to think about law and, especially, how to use it.

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• Volume 42, Issue 4
• Alyse Bertenthal
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12267

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Book Chapters

The invisible discourse of the law: reflections on legal literacy and general education.

James Boyd White , University of Michigan Law School Follow

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Almost everyone who is not trained in the law has struggled to understand legal documents, such as contracts and guarantees - not because they read poorly but because they lack legal knowledge and experience with legal language. Readers can experience the same difficulty in other fields such as philosophy, literary theory, or economics; it takes time to gain the knowledge required to become an expert reader in these areas. However, between the extremes of the trained legal expert and the complete novice is "another possible meaning of legal literacy: the degree of competence in legal discourse that is required for meaningful and active life in our increasingly legalistic and litigious culture" (par. 2). It is this degree of competence that the author discusses in the following essay.

James Boyd White is a professor of law at the University of Chicago. His interests and knowledge extend beyond the law to the history of civilization; he is a member of a faculty group that focuses on the ancient Mediterranean World. He is the author of The Legal Imagination and coauthor of Constitutional Criminal Procedure .

As you read, try to answer the following question in relation to the essay: What general principles about language can I learn from the essay?

Publication Information & Recommended Citation

White, James Boyd. "The Invisible Discourse of the Law: Reflections on Legal Literacy and General Education." W. R. Winterowd and G. R. Winterowd, co-authors. In The Critical Reader, Thinker and Writer . Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield Pub. Co., 1992.

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Research on Legal Education of Contemporary College Students

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• Zhongqiu Tan 3  

Part of the book series: Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing ((AINSC,volume 108))

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Legal literacy is an important part of overall quality of college students, Legal education is an effective way to foster a good legal quality of college students, enhance their legal awareness and their legal awareness. Concerning for the legal education has important practical significance to the process of “the rule of law”. To face with of the new situations and problems of contemporary college students, we should rethink the existing problems already lying in legal education, such as lag of education concept, rigid content and simple teaching methods to some extent, of course, these problems can hardly adapt to the develop of our society. The emerging of information society and knowledge economy era has proposed new requirement for the foster of college students, so constitutional society requires innovation on subject, object, content, and methods of legal education in colleges and universities. Currently, the universities expanded enrollment, student types increased and the growing diversity of forms of education has put forward new requirements to the legal education in colleges and universities. This article tries to analyze the ways to enhance and improve the effectiveness of legal education relying on the existing problems in the legal education on college students.

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Tan, Z. (2011). Research on Legal Education of Contemporary College Students. In: Wang, Y. (eds) Education and Educational Technology. Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing, vol 108. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24775-0_67

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Legal Literacy: A Tool for Women's Empowerment

• M. Schuler , Sakuntala Kadirgamar-Rajasingham
• Published 1 September 1992
• Law, Sociology

23 Citations

Taking the law into their own hands: women, legal reform and legal literacy in brazil, legal literacy as a strategy for economic empowerment: a case of the implementation of by laws on urban agriculture by kadoma municipality, zimbabwe, health and legal literacy for migrants: twinned strands woven in the cloth of social justice and the human right to health care.

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Women's Rights as Human Rights: Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF)

Women as agents of grassroots change: illustrating micro-empowerment in morocco, socio-economic status and female literacy in india, change through empowerment processes: women's stories from south asia and latin america, the cultural adoption of human rights in a local context: a case in norway, lived realities of domestic workers within the south african labour legislative context : a qualitative study, the ‘barefoot model’ of economic empowerment in rural rajasthan, related papers.

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Legal Literacy for Public School Teachers (2022)

$ 49.99

Edited by Luke Stedrak and Jennifer Mezzina

Legal Literacy for Public School Teachers aims to support educators in developing a better understanding of many aspects of school law, enabling them to make informed and appropriate decisions to avoid legal pitfalls as challenges arise, be in compliance with school policies, guard the rights of their students, and protect their own rights as public school employees.

No. 100 in the Education Law Association’s K-12 Series

Description

Teachers are trained in pedagogy, child development, and subject areas, but they do not receive extensive training in school law. At the same time, they are often the frontline responders to situations that pose potential legal dilemmas. Teachers are trained in pedagogy, child development, and subject areas, but they do not receive extensive training in school law. At the same time, they are often the frontline responders to situations that pose potential legal dilemmas.

The Education Law Association’s Legal Literacy for Public School Teachers —a specially adapted publication derived from its top-selling text, The Principal’s Legal Handbook —pools the experience and expertise of scholars and practitioners into one valuable resource. The editors and chapter authors are experts in school law from across the U.S., representing the diverse membership of the Education Law Association which includes practicing attorneys, education law professors, school leaders and teachers, and many others.

Importantly, many of the authors of this book have been PK-12 teachers at some point in their careers. Although they are now education law scholars and attorneys, they understand how to translate the law to inform professionals who do not have a legal background. Each chapter highlights the most critical issues and provides practical recommendations.

Introduction – We Must Improve the Legal Literacy of Public School Teachers John Hatcher III, Luke Stedrak , and Jennifer Mezzina

Chapter 1 – Why Teachers Should Increase Their Legal Literacy Janet R. Decker

Chapter 2 – The American Legal System Charles J. Russo and Allan G. Osborne, Jr.

Chapter 3 – Freedom of Expression Watt Lesley Black, Jr.

Chapter 4 – Student Searches in Public Schools: Contemporary Legal Considerations for Educators Kevin P. Brady , W. Kyle Ingle, and John C. Pijanowski

Chapter 5 – Student Records Justin Bathon , John S. Gooden , and James A. Plenty

Chapter 6 – Students’ Speech Rights in an Online Era Mark A. Gooden and Bradley W. Davis

Chapter 7 – Fundamentals of Federal Disability Law Julie F. Mead

Chapter 8 – IEPs, Least Restrictive Environment, and Placement Jean B. Crockett and Mitchell L. Yell

Chapter 9 – Disciplining Students with Disabilities Mark A. Paige

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Importance of Legal Literacy In Growth and Development of India

Related Papers

Dr Yashpal D Netragaonkar

Law of the land are made for the growth and benefit of the society. They are made to protect and preserve the human rights of all individuals. Laws are made for better governance of the country and it becomes imperative for the people of the country to become aware of the existing laws. Every nation is governed by a system of laws for the growth and overall development of the society. It is a system of rules and regulations which are found in judicial interpretations, constitutional and legislative enactments, made by the competent authority so as to govern society and to influence behaviour of the individuals therein in the righteous manner. It is a powerful concept and also a mechanism of social control and law and order in the society. The present paper aims to throw light on the importance of legal literacy for the overall growth and development of the nation.

Contemporary Issues in International Law

Prasant Swain

Dr. Kalpeshkumar L Gupta

Outcome of 1st Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam National Legal Essay Competition - 2016. Best 10 Essays have been published in form of a book published by LAP, Germany Edited by DrKalpesh Lalitkumar Gupta, Founder, ProBono India

IIUM Law Journal

B.C. Nirmal

isara solutions

International Res Jour Managt Socio Human

Law is very important in the society. It is necessary for making society to be peaceful and problem free. Law is man-made and created to modulate the society by introducing justice, fairness and equality which is delivered by courts, executed by governments and is applicable to every individual within their jurisdiction. The law give protection to the victims and punish the wrong-doer accordingly . Law strives to maintain peace and safety among people and provide ways to resolve their disputes and dispense justice. The administration of justice is within the purview of courts. The general notion is that courts in India are not courts of justice but courts of law because poor and indigent persons are denied access to justice. The major reason for such a denial is illiteracy and unawareness of the laws and rights. The rights and duties are outcome of law. Law touches the daily life of every Indian citizen in myriads ways of which general mass is not even aware. Illiteracy, social backwardness, topography, psychological distancing and mental incapacity act as real barriers to the common people for getting access to the seats of justice. The result is that these people become silent sufferers even while they face abject denial of justice.

Abhishek Sanwaria

Social Action

Shalu Nigam

Harvard Law Review

Sandhya Kandukuri

JRSP-ELT - Journal for Research Scholars and Professionals of English Language Teaching

A lawyer's ability to communicate in standard legal language is invaluable. The journey of understanding legal writings and thinking like a lawyer begins the day an individual decides to pursue a programme in legal studies. The importance of language in the life of a law student cannot be overstated. A student of legal studies is exposed to legal jargons, various judgment readings, reading legal texts, and many other texts from the start of their legal education. Students also participate in research, which is a significant feature of law school from the start. Law students must be able to understand legal terminology in order to interpret its meaning and conduct productive research. Understanding of the legal provisions can be considered a prerequisite for justice, equality, dignity, and liberty for any citizen of a democratic country like India. However, due to the complexity of legal language, it is difficult for a layperson (and sometimes for commoners) to comprehend the profound meaning of the legal statutes. As a result, the legal profession's specialized language becomes increasingly important. In India English is the language of legal education however, for most of the Indians it is not a mother tongue. This paper is an attempt at understanding the English used in legal education and to investigate major challenges usually encountered by the students of a legal programme in India. It also aims to provide plausible solutions to the complexity of the English language in practice.

The phrase ‘Rule of Law’ treasuresSupremacy of Law and it means that all are equal in the eyes of law.The Rule of Law isdeep-rooted in history and accepted as a notion by large number of nations. Itdiffers from the concept of Rule of Man. The common objective for the development in all the societies is to live with human dignity and which is possible with the practice of rule of law. Rule of law can be expressed by only by practices and these practices are possible by expressing such intentions in the Supreme law of the land. Acknowledgements of the Fundamental rights and the concept of justice of all kind in the constitution is strong evidences of the adoption of the concept of Rule of Law. The Constitution of India also focuses on the fundamental rights and also on the concept of justice according to law.

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Princely state within Kievan Rus'

In 882, due to its growing economic and political authority, Oleg of Novgorod captured Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus . The city soon became the second most powerful city in Kievan Rus. It was ruled by a series of political organizations, called posadnicks, which governed when the ruler had no son to inherit the throne. When not being ruled by posadnicks, Novgorod had the good fortune to experience a series of benevolent rulers who governed with the best interest of the city's inhabitants in mind.

In Norse sagas the city is mentioned as the capital of Gardariki (i.e., the East Slavic lands). Four Viking kings—Olaf I of Norway, Olaf II of Norway, Magnus I of Norway, and Harald Haardraade—sought refuge in Novgorod from enemies at home. No more than a few decades after the death and subsequent canonization of Olaf II of Norway, in 1028, the city's community had erected a church in his memory, Saint Olaf's Church in Novgorod.

After the tenth century, Novgorod emerged as a strong political and religious center. Its secure position was primarily due to Novogorod's strong military onslaught against Constantinople . As a result of the military campaign, Novgorod maintained equal trading rights with Byzantine and began a cultural interchange. East Slavic tribes from Byzantine began pouring into the ancient Slavic state, influencing the art and culture of Novgorod.

The most notable among the benevolent leaders of Novgorod was Yaroslav I the Wise , who had sat as prince while his father, Vladimir the Great , was prince in Kiev. Yaroslav promulgated the first written code of laws (later incorporated into Russkaya Pravda) among the Eastern Slavs and is said to have granted the city a number of freedoms or privileges, which they often referred to in later centuries as precedents in their relations with other princes. His son, Vladimir, sponsored construction of the great St Sophia Cathedral, more accurately translated as The Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which remains in modern times.

His Majesty Lord Novgorod the Great

Under a series of benevolent rulers, the inhabitants of Novgorod were steadily granted increased independence and political autonomy. As a result of their increased role in the political process, it soon became apparent to the inhabitants of Novgorod that a singular ruling authority was not necessary for Novgorod to function. As a result of this revelation, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince in 1136.

This date is seen as the traditional beginning of the Novgorod Republic, which invited and dismissed a series of princes over the next two centuries in order to rule Novgorod. While the veche, or electing authority, maintained supreme nominal power, some powerful leaders were able to assert a strong agenda over the objections of the people. [3]

The city state controlled most of Europe's northeast, from today's Estonia to the Ural Mountains, making it one of the largest states in medieval Europe, although much of the territory north and east of Lakes Lagoda and Onega were sparsely populated and never organized politically. While a basic outline of the various officials and the veche can be drawn up, the city-state's exact political constitution remains uncertain. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city collectively, although where one officials power ended and another's began is uncertain. The prince, although reduced in power beginning in about the mid-twelfth century, was represented by his namestnik or lieutenant, and still played important roles as a military commander, legislator, and jurist. The exact composition of the veche, too, is uncertain, with some scholars such as Vasily Kliuchevksii claiming it was democratic in nature, while later scholars, such as Valentin Ianin and Alesandr Khoroshev, see it as a "sham democracy" controlled by the ruling elite.

Novgorod, with its unique political structure, soon became a thriving center for arts and culture. During the Medieval Ages Novgorod gained its reputation for literacy and education, a reputation that stayed with the city for most of its legacy.

Written records at this time are in the form of birch bark documents, many of which were written in the archbishop's scriptorium. It was in Novgorod that the oldest Slavic book written north of Macedonia and the oldest inscription in a Finnic language were unearthed. Possibly due to the intellectual and cultural strength of Novgorod, Novgorod did not fall during the Mongol invasion of ancient Russia. During this invasion, many surrounding cities fell to the Mongol invaders, but the cultural beacon of Novgorod resisted the invasion.

Within the united Russian state

Despite being able to resist the Mongol invaders, Novgorod began to falter politically in the early fifteenth century. Many scholars trace Novgorod's crumbling political power to an inability to provide the basic needs for its inhabitants. The citizens of Novgorod were particularly threatened by a lack of grain , which drove many citizens close to starvation. In order to rectify the lack of bread Novgorod made a political agreement with Moscow and Tver to provide much needed grain. These cities used the agreement to exercise political control over Novgorod, and the city's independence began to weaken in proportionate to its dependence on Moscow and Tver for grain. Novgorod was eventually annexed by Moscow in 1478.

Eventually Ivan III annexed the city to Muscovy in 1478. Novgorod remained the third largest Russian city, however, until the famine of 1560s and Ivan the Terrible sacking the city and slaughtering thousands of its inhabitants in 1570. The city's merchant elite and nobility were deported to Moscow, Yaroslavl, and elsewhere.

The difficulties for Novgorod continued in the Time of Trouble, when the city fell to Swedish troops. According to some accounts, the city voluntarily submitted to Swedish rule. Novgorod continued under Swedish authority for six years, after which time it was returned to Russia and allowed to rebuild a level of political authority. After the transfer of Novgorod to Russia, the city began an ambitious program of building and many of its most famous structures were constructed during this time period. Notable examples of this period of architecture include the Cathedral of the Sign and Vyazhischi Monastery . The most famous of Russian patriarchs, Nikon, occupied the metropolitan see of Novgorod between 1648 and 1652.

Novgorod became the administrative center of the Novgorod Governorate in 1727, demonstrating its reclaimed importance to Russia. This administrative division existed until 1927. Between 1927 and 1944 the city was a part of Leningrad Oblast, and then became an administrative center of the newly formed Novgorod Oblast.

Novgorod continued to be important to Russia until World War II , when German troops occupied the city and systematically destroyed many of the historical and cultural landmarks.

When the Red Army liberated the city on January 19, 1944, out of 2,536 stone buildings, fewer than forty were still standing. After the war, the downtown was gradually restored according to a plan worked out by Alexey Shchusev. Its chief monuments have been declared a World Heritage Site . In 1998, the city was officially renamed Veliky Novgorod, thus partly reverting to its medieval title "Lord Novgorod the Great."

Sights and Landmarks

No other Russian or Ukrainian city can compete with Novgorod in the variety and age of its medieval monuments. The foremost among these is the St Sophia Cathedral, built between 1045 and 1050 under the patronage of Vladimir Yaroslavich, the son of Yaroslav the Wise (Vladimir is buried in the cathedral along with his mother, Anna.) [4] The Cathedral is one of the most finely preserved examples of eleventh century Russian architecture. It is particularly noted for its Russian style architecture, sharply different from the French inspired architecture favored by previous Russian royal families. One of the most prominent features of the cathedral is its distinctive bronze gates, which were originally thought to have been made in Magdeburg during the twelfth century C.E. , but have now found to been purchased late into the fifteenth century. [5] A distinctively different architectural style is apparent in the Saviour Cathedral of Kutyn Monastery, which is patterned after the cathedrals in Moscow. This church, along with other churches built during the fifteenth century, is patterned after Muscovite architectural trends.

The Novgorod Kremlin, traditionally known as the Detinets , also contains the oldest palace in Russia (the so-called Chamber of the Facets, 1433), which served as the main meeting hall of the archbishops; the oldest Russian bell tower (mid-fifteenth century), and the oldest Russian clock tower (1673). The Palace of Facets, the bell tower, and the clock tower were originally built on the orders of Archbishop Evfimii II, although the clock tower collapsed in the seventeenth century and had to be rebuilt and much of the palace of Evfimii II is no longer extant. Among later structures, the most remarkable are a royal palace (1771) and a bronze monument to the Millennium of Russia, representing the most important figures from the country's history (unveiled in 1862).

Novgorod's conquest by Ivan III in 1478 decisively changed the character of local architecture. Large commissions were thenceforth executed by Muscovite masters and patterned after cathedrals of Moscow Kremlin: e.g., the Saviour Cathedral of Khutyn Monastery (1515), the Cathedral of the Mother of God of the Sign (1688), and the St. Nicholas Cathedral of Vyaschizhy Monastery (1685). Nevertheless, the styles of some parochial churches were still in keeping with local traditions: e.g., the churches of Myrrh-bearing Women (1510) and of Sts Boris and Gleb (1586).

• ↑ Preliminary results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census (in Russian) Retrieved February 9, 2012.
• ↑ V. L. (Valentin Lavrent’evich) Ianin and M. Kh. (Mark Khaimovich) Aleshkovskii, “Proskhozhdenie Novgoroda: (k postanovke problemy),” Istoriia SSSR 2, 1971, 32-61.
• ↑ Michael C. Paul, “The Iaroslavichi and the Novgorodian Veche 1230-1270: A Case Study on Princely Relations with the Veche,” Russian History/ Histoire Russe 31, No. 1-2, Spring-Summer 2004, 39-59.
• ↑ Tatiana Tsarevskaia, St. Sophia's Cathedral in Novgorod (Moscow: Severnyi Palomnik, 2005), 3.
• ↑ Irena Daniec Jadwiga, The Message of Faith and Symbol in European Medieval Bronze Church Doors (Danbury, CT: Rutledge Books, 1999), Chapter III "An Enigma: The Medieval Bronze Church Door of Płock in the Cathedral of Novgorod," 67-97; Mikhail Tsapenko, ed., Early Russian Architecture (Moscow: Progress Publisher, 1969), 34-38.

References ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Costantino, Maria. 2001. The Illustrated Flag Handbook . New York: Gramercy Books. ISBN 0-517-21810-0
• DK Publishing. Great Britain (Eyewitness Guide). New York: DK Publishing. ISBN 0756615429
• Lewis, Brenda Ralph. 2002. Great Civilizations . Bath: Paragon Publishing. ISBN 0-75256-141-3

External links

All links retrieved May 3, 2023.

• Novgorod the Great site

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Why was Novgorod a unique city in medieval Russia?

As the most prominent and powerful city of northwestern Rus in the Middle Ages, and being very popular with European merchants, Novgorod was unlike any other settlement in the lands of the Eastern Slavs during that era.

Traditionally, medieval Russian cities grew around the main fortress, which was the political and religious heart of the community. Novgorod, however, emerged from a union of three settlements inhabited by different Slavic tribes. For them, it became a “new city” – this is how “Novgorod” is literally translated from Russian ( Novy – “new”, and gorod – “city”).

In the 14th and 15th centuries, during its heyday as a commercial and political power, the city of Novgorod was officially known as Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod – literally “The Great Master Novgorod”. The city was almost an empire, controlling vast lands from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east, and from the White Sea in the north to the upper Volga in the south. After Kiev, it was the second most powerful city in medieval Rus.

Commerce: Making Novgorod great

Novgorod market in the 17th century

International commerce was the foundation of Novgorod's prosperity, which truly made it great and powerful. The local craftsmen – weavers and tanners, jewelers and glass blowers, potters and foundry workers, gunsmiths and locksmiths – were famous throughout the Russian lands. But Novgorod also did a brisk trade with Western Europe via the Baltic Sea trade routes.

By the end of the 13th century, merchants from the Hanseatic League developed strong trade relations with Novgorod. The Hanseatic League was the largest trade association of merchants from major German cities situated along the Baltic and North seas, but it also maintained four representative offices outside of the German-speaking world – in Novgorod, Bruges, Bergen and London.

Guests from over the sea, Nikolai Rerikh, 1901

The German merchants came to Novgorod to make wholesale purchases, and deals were concluded at the Hanseatic League's representative office. However, a merchant from any other Russian city couldn't enter the office's territory and make deals there.

European merchants were eager to come to Novgorod to sell prized luxury goods such as wine, expensive fabrics, ornamental stones, and precious metals. In return, Novgorod sold fine and precious furs such as squirrel, weasel, and sable. Novgorod also massively exported honey, leather, wax (which Europe needed to make church candles), and walrus ivory.

Boyar republic

Velikiy Novgorod

Novgorod’s political system was unique among the myriad of city-states and principalities of medieval Rus; it was ruled by a small circle of boyar families that owned huge fiefdoms both near the city and in remote northern lands. The title of boyar in Novgorod was hereditary, a fact that distinguished the city from the rest of Russia, where the title of boyar usually was bestowed upon military commanders who were close to the Rurikid princes. The fact that Novgorod was ruled solely by locally-born aristocracy was actually a prominent feature in the principality’s unique form of republican government.

READ MORE: Who were the Russian boyars?

Unlike the boyars in the rest of the Russian lands, the boyars of Novgorod weren’t military commanders. Rather, they were locally-born landowners and high-profile international traders who also were proficient in politics. The supreme authority in Novgorod was the Veche , a kind of parliament that included the wealthiest and most influential men in the city. The upper part of the Veche included at least 300 boyars – 14th century German sources report that the main assembly in Novgorod was called the "300 golden belts".

The Veche met in public on the square near the central market, and its convocation was announced by the famous Veche bell, a symbol of Novgorod’s freedom and independence. The veche was not unique to Novgorod, however, and it was also a feature of the political system in other cities of medieval Rus until the time when Moscow began to solidify control over the other principalities to form a centralized Russian state. Only in Novgorod did the Veche exist up to the 15th century.

The Veche was so powerful that it elected and could even expel the prince; it also issued laws, declared war and made peace, established taxes and duties. Also, the members of the Veche chose a posadnik , who was the managerial head of the city. He monitored whether the prince fulfilled the terms of the agreement with the city, as well as managed Novgorod’s possessions and was responsible for law enforcement, the courts, and even signed diplomatic treaties. The prince of Novgorod had to represent the city to the other Russian lands and was responsible for the city’s defense.

The political life of Novgorodians, however, was not limited to the central Veche; ordinary Novgorodians also had the chance to participate in the city’s local street and district veches. The boyars used these meetings to promote their interests and fight against their opponents.

The city’s religious authorities enjoyed great freedom ever since the people of Novgorod were able to secure autonomy for their archbishop. From the beginning of the 12th century, the Kiev bishop (known as a “metropolitan”) basically rubber stamped whatever candidate was proposed by the Novgorodians for this position. The archbishop had his own regiment for protection, participated in diplomatic negotiations and put his official seal on international agreements.

Liberty in princes

Yaroslav the Wise, Nikolai Rerikh, 1941-1942

Restriction of the rights of the princes began in Novgorod during the lifetime of Yaroslav the Wise (978 – 1054), who agreed to give special privileges to the Novgorod boyars vis-a-vis the prince in exchange for support in the struggle for control of Kiev. Novgorod did not develop a separate princely dynasty after the death of Yaroslav, because the city was at the source of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks” and was closely connected with Kiev. When he died in 1054, Yaroslav the Wise bequeathed Kiev and Novgorod to his eldest son. As a result, the princely line that ruled Kiev usually chose a prince to rule in Novgorod, or Novgorod had the same prince as Kiev did.

In 1136, a rebellion in Novgorod led to the expulsion of the prince. From then on, the Novgorodians invited princes themselves and concluded a temporary agreement with them, according to which they could not interfere in the affairs of city management, change the highest officials and acquire lands on the outskirts of the Novgorod republic. In case of any violation of the agreement, the prince was expelled from the city, and the Veche selected a new candidate. Such changes more than once had a serious impact on the life of all the principalities of Rus.

Despite such treatment of the princes, all the major figures of Kievan Rus, who were the builders of the future united Russian state – from Vladimir the Great to Vladimir Monomakh – reigned in Novgorod before ascending the throne in Kiev. Symbolically, Novgorod was also the first place where Rurik reigned in Russia.

The most literate city in Russia

Birch bark letter #1

On July 26, 1951, archaeological excavations in Novgorod found the first letter written on birch bark, with a discernible text carved on the surface. In total, more than 1100 such letters were found in Novgorod and about 100 in other cities of medieval Russia.

The analysis of Novgorod’s birch-bark letters allowed scholars to reconstruct the everyday life of the city and its inhabitants over the course of the 11th to the 15th centuries, which was the golden era of the Novgorod Republic.

The texts on birch bark testify to widespread literacy among the people of Novgorod who wrote to each other often and on a variety of matters, where they discussed household affairs, commercial transactions, as well as court decisions and simply the local gossip. Both men and women were literate, which was unheard of for Western Europe at this time.

READ MORE: How did single women survive in Tsarist Russia?

The birch-barks showed that the position of women in Novgorod society was quite prominent, and they conducted their own affairs, concluded commercial transactions, dispatched their husbands orders, as well as appeared in court, including on financial issues; and in general were actively engaged in economic activity.

Among the letters there were also touching declarations of love, such as the famous letter written by an unknown young woman in the 12th century: "I sent to you three times. What evil do you have against me that you did not come to me?" Another birch-bark letter contains one of the first records of Russian cursing.